University of Chicago
lEibraries
; \
THE
YOUNG PREACHER'S MANUAL;
OR A, COLLECTION- OE
TREATISES ON PREACHING ;
COMPRISING
BROWN'S ADDRESS TO STUDENTS
IN DBVINITY-
FENELON'S DIALOGUES ON THE
* ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT.
CLAUDE'S ESSAY ox THE COMPOSI-
TION OF A SERMON, ABRIDGED.
GREGORY ON THE COMPOSITION
'" AND DELIVERY- OF A SERMON.
REYBAZ ON THE ART OF PREACH-
ING.
WITH A LIST OF BOOKS.
SELECTED AND REVISED
BY EBENEZER PORTER, D. D.
BARTLET PROF. OV SACRED RHETORIC IN THEOI,. SEM. AlTDOVJEIt,
BOSTON :
PUBLISHED BY CHARLES EWER,
AND FOR SALE AT HIS BOOKSTOK.E SO. 51 COR>, r HIT,f.
1819.
I/.AGG AJfI> GOULD... .PRINTERS.
* ->
A
DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, TO WIT :
DISTRICT CLERK'S OFFICK.
BE it remembered, that on the fifteenth day of March, A. . 1819, and in
the forty third year of Jthe independence of the United States of America, Charles
Ewer, of the said district, has deposited in this office the title of a book, the
right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, viz.-" The Young
Preacher's Manual, or a collection of Treatises on Preaching; comprising
Brown's Address to Students in Divinity, Fenelon's Dialogues on the Eloquence
of the Pulpit, Claude's Essay on the Composition of a Sermon, abridged, Greg-
ory on the Composition and Delivery of a Sermon, Reybaz on the Art of Preach-
ing. With a List of Books. Selected and revised by Ebenezer Porter, D. D.
Bartlet Prof, of Sacred Rhetoric in the Theol. Sem. Andover." In conformity
to the act of the congress of the United States of America entitled " An Act for
the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books,
to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned ;
and also to an act, entitled, " An act supplementary to an act, entitled, An act
for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and
books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein
mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engrav-
ing, and etching historical and other prints."
J W DAVTq I Clerk of the district
J . W . U A V 1&, f MassachweitSt
PREFACE.
THE work of the Christian preacher is doubtless
the most important, that can be committed to human
hands. But while the influence of the pulpit, upon the
everlasting interests of .men, is generally admitted to be
a subject of the highest concern, the peculiar qualifica-
tions, which are requisite in the teachers of religion,
seem to 'have been too much overlooked by writers
of our times. The compiler of the YOUNG MINISTER'S
COMPANION, which was published a few years ago, per-
formed an invaluable service for the church. The
heavy sale of that book is to be accounted for, only on
the supposition that our rising clergy are unacquainted
with the excellence of its contents. But, though the
principal treatises of that compilation, are perhaps the
best that were ever written, on the subjects which they
discuss ; their chief design is to form the character of
the Christian minister, and to exhibit the principles by
which he ought to be governed. Still, something corres-
ponding with the above compilation, in its general char-
acter, but relating directly to the duties of the pulpit,
was much needed. Some of the best treatises on
' 85101
DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, TO WIT :
DISTRICT CIKRK'S OFFICE.
BE it remembered, that on the fifteenth day of March, A. JD. 1819, and in
the forty third year of the independence of the United States of America, Charles
Ewer, of the said district, has deposited in this office the title of a book, the
right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, viz.-" The Young
Preacher's Manual, or a collection of Treatises on Preaching; comprising
Brown's Address to Students in Divinity, Fenelon's Dialogues on the Eloquence
of the Pulpit, Claude's Essay on the Composition of a Sermon, abridged, Greg-
ory on the Composition and Delivery of a Sermon, Reybaz on the Art of Preach-
ing. With a List of Books. Selected and revised by Ebenezer Porter, B. D.
Bartlet Prof, of Sacred Rhetoric in the Theol. Sem. Andover." In conformity
to the act of the congress of the United States of America entitled " An Act for
the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books,
to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned ;
and also to an act, entitled, " An act supplementary to an act, entitled, An act
for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and
books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein
mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engrav-
ing, and etching historical and other prints."
T w riAVTe? \Clerkofthedistrict
*f V V t Xx A V 1O f ^r* 7IT-.*. 7 +.*.~JJ~
PREFACE.
I HE work of the Christian preacher is doubtless
the most important, that can be committed to human
hands. But while the influence of the pulpit, upon the
everlasting interests of , men, is generally admitted to be
a subject of the highest concern, the peculiar qualifica-
tions, which are requisite in the teachers of religion.
seem to have been too much overlooked by writers
of our times. The compiler of the YOUNG MINISTER'S
COMPANION, which was published a few years ago, per-
formed an invaluable service for the church. The
heavy sale of that book is to be accounted for, only on
the supposition that our rising clergy are unacquainted
with the excellence of its contents. But, though the
principal treatises of that compilation, are perhaps the
best that were ever written, on the subjects which they
discuss ; their chief design is to form the character of
the Christian minister, and to exhibit the principles by
which he ought to be governed. Still, something corres-
ponding with the above compilation, in its general char-
acter, but relating directly to the duties of the pulpit,
was much needed. Some of the best treatises on
k<- r ^ t VH
IV PREFACE.
preaching can hardly be obtained of booksellers, and
others are to be found only in connexion with expensive
works. A collection of these treatises, in a cheap and
convenient form, must be an important acquisition to
every theological student. To furnish such a collection,
is the design of the YOUNG PREACHER'S MANUAL.
The excellent John Newton has well remarked, that
" a preacher is not to be made, as a mechanic makes a
table or a chair." His heart must be formed by divine
grace. So far, however, as intellectual qualifications
are concerned, they must be cultivated, as in other hu-
marJ "attainments, by study, and a practical application
of the best rules of instruction. Rules on preaching
cannot make a preacher : nor can EUCLID'S ELEMENTS
make a mathematician. But skill in any art or science
presupposes acquaintance with its elementary princi-
ples. Knowledge of the Bible, and of systematic The-
ology, is essential to the Christian Teacher, but this is
not sufficient. He may possess this, and yet not be
qualified to write or speak his own thoughts in a per-
Bpicuous and interesting manner. "A man may be a
good lawyer, and yet a bad pleader ; so he may be a
good divine, and yet a very indifferent preacher."
The Compiler of this MANUAL hopes that it may
render some important aid to the student, in his prepaiv
ation for the sacred office.
The ADDRESS TO STUDENTS IN DIVINITY was written by
the REV. JOHN BROWN of HADDINGTON, whose character
as a minister of the gospel is well known in this country.
PREFACE.
/
The DIALOGUES ON ELOQ,JENCE are from the pen of
FENELON, in whom the taste of a fine scholar was united
with the piety of a fervent Christian. DR. DODDRIDGE
speaking of this work of the Archbishop, calls it, " his
incomparable dialogues on eloquence, which, (he says) may
God put it into the hearts of our preachers often and
attentively to read."
FORDYCE, in his art of preaching, says ; " If you want
to see the whole machinery and apparatus of pulpit el-
oquence displayed, in the completest manner, ! refer
you to the great and good Prelate of CAMBRAY'S DIA-
LOGUES on that subject ; who was himself the justest
critic, and one of the best models of eloquence, that I
know." And DR. WILLIAMS, speaking of this work, says.
it is "deservedly mentioned, by many writers of emi-
nence, with a sort of respect, bordering on veneration."
The ESSAY ON THE COMPOSITION OP A SERMON, was writ-
ten by the REV. JOHN CLAUDE, a minister of the Reform-
ed French church. ROBINSON'S translation of it is ac-
companied with cumbersome, and, to a great extent,
illjudged notes, making two volumes, octavo. It can
scarcely be obtained in this country, except in connexion
with SIMEON'S SKELETONS, in five volumes, a work, which
very few ministers can afford, or would wish to purchase.
It is here given in a form, which the compiler thinks
preferable to that of SIMEON or WILLIAMS.
In this Essay, and in the two following articles,
(though they are by no means to be regarded as per-
fect.) the judicious student will find many valuable
VI PREFACE.
thoughts on preaching, and more, it is presumed, than
can be found elsewhere, in the same number of pages.
It is only necessary, further to apprize the reader,
that the marginal notes, in FENELON'S dialogues, selected
from other writers, generally confirming, but sometimes
invalidating the opinions of that celebrated author, are
designed to furnish a more ample view of the several
topics discussed, than is contained in the original work.
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY,
ANDOVER, MARCH, 17, 1819.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Address to Students in Divinity, by Rev. John Brown . 7
Dialogues on the Eloquence of the Pulpit, by M. Fenelon 29
Extract from a Letter to the French Academy, by the same 183
Essay on the Composition of a Sermon, by the Rev* John
Claude - 213
Thoughts on the Composition and Delivery of a Sermon, by
Dr. Gregory 355
Letter on the Art of Preaching, by M. Reybaz .... 401
List of Books 423
ADDRESS
TO
STUDENTS OF DIVINITY.
MT DEAR. PUPILS,
I have been occupied in instructing you, your
consciences must bear me witness, that my principal
concern was to impress your minds with the great things
of God. Now, when I am gradually stepping into the
eternal state, to appear before the judgment-seat of
Christ, permit me to beseech you, as you wish to pro-
mote his honour, and the eternal salvation of your OWD
and your hearer's souls,
1. See, that ye be REAL CHRISTIANS yourselves. I now
more and more see, that nothing less than REAL, REAL
Christianity, is fit to die with, and make an appearance
before God. Are ye then indeed " born again, born
from above, born of the spirit ? created in Christ Jesus
unto good works ? new creatures in Christ Jesus," hav-
ing " all old things passed away, and all things become
new ?" Are ye indeed the circumcision which " worship
God in the spirit, habitually reading, meditating, pray-
. ' 2
10 ADDRESS TO STUDENTS.
ing, preaching, conversing with your hearts, under the
influence of the Holy Ghost ? Have you no ".confidence
in the flesh," no confidence in your self-righteousness,
your learning, your address, your care and diligence, your
gifts and graces ; but being emptied of self in every form,
are you " poor in spirit, less than the least of all saints,"
and the least of all God's mercies ; nay, the very " chief
of sinners" in your own sight ? Has it pleased God " to
reveal his Son in" you? and to instruct you with a
strong hand, " to count all things but loss for the excel-
lency of the knowledge of Jesus Christ as your Lord,
and to count them but dung, that you may win him, and
be found in him, not having your own righteousness, but
the righteousness which is of God by faith, and to know
the power of his resurrection, and the fellowship of his
sufferings, and to press toward the mark for the prize
of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus ?" If you be,
or become, graceless preachers or ministers of the gos-
pel, how terrible is your condition ! If you open your
Bible, the sentence of your redoubled damnation flashes
into your conscience from every page. When you com-
pose your sermon, you but draw up a tremendous indict-
ment against yourselves. If you argue against, or re-
prove other men's sins, you but aggravate your own.
When you publish the holy law of God, you but add to
your rebellion against it, and make it an awful witness
against your treacherous dissimulation. If you announce
its threatenings, and mention hell, with all its insupport-
able torments, you but involve yourselves in it, and make
yourselves heirs to it as the inheritance appointed you
by the Almighty. When you speak of Christ and his
excellencies, fulness, love, and labours, it is but to tram-
ple him under your feet. If you take his covenant and
ADDRESS TO STUDENTS. 11
gospel into your mouth, -it is but to profane them, and
cast them forth to be trodden under foot of men. If
you talk of spiritual experiences, you but do despite to
the Spirit of grace. When you commend the Father,
the Son, and the Holy Ghost, and invite sinners to new-
covenant fellowship with them, you but treacherously
stab them under the fifth rib, betray them with a kiss,
and- from your heart cry, This is the heir, the God,
come let us kill him. While you hold up the glass of
God's law or gospel to others, you turn its back to your-
selves. The gospel, which ye preach to others, is hid,
is a savour of death unto death to you, the vail remain-
ing on your hearts, and the god of this world having
blinded your minds. Without the saving, the heart-
transforming knowledge of Christ and him crucified, all
your knowledge is but an accursed Buffer up, and the
murderer of your own souls. And unless the grace of
God make an uncommon stretch to save you, how des-
perate is your condition ! Perhaps no person under
heaven bids more unlikely to be saved, than a graceless
minister ; his conscience is so overcharged with guilt, so
seared as with an hot iron, and his heart so hardened
by the abuse of the gospel. Alas ! my dear pupils,
must all my instructions, all the strivings of the Holy
Ghost, all your reading, all your meditations, ail your
sermons, all your evangelical principles, all your profes-
sion, all your prayers, as traps and snares, take and bind
any of you, hand and foot, that, as "unprofitable ser-
vants, you" may be cast into " outer darkness," with
all the contents of your Bible and other books, all your
gifts and apparent-like graces, as it were, inlaid in your
consciences, that, like fuel or oil, they may for ever feed
the flames of God's wrath upon your souls ! After be-
12 ADDRESS TO STUDENTS'.
ing set for a time at the gate of heaven, to point otjiers
into it, after prophesying in Christ's name, and wasting
yourselves to show others the way of salvation, and to
light up the friends of our Redeemer to their heavenly
rest, must your own lamp go out in everlasting darkness,
and ye be bidden, *' Depart from me, I never knew you,
ye workers of iniquity ?" Must L-^ must all the churches
behold you at last brought forth and condemned as
arch-traitors to our Redeemer ? Must you, in the most
tremendous manner, forever sink into the bottomless
pit, under the weight of the blood of the great God, our
Saviour ; under the weight of murdered truths, murder-
ed convictions, murdered gifts, murdered ministrations
of the gospel, and murdered souls of men !
2. Ponder much, as before God, what proper FUR-
NITURE you have for the ministerial work, and labour to
increase it. To him that hath shall be given. Has Je-
sus bestowed on you the Holy Ghost ? What distinct
knowledge have you of the mysteries of the kingdom ?
What aptness have you to teach, bringing out of the
good treasure of your own heart " things new and old?"
What ability to make the deep mysteries of the gospel
plain to persons of weak capacities, and to represent
things delightful or terrible in a proper and affecting
manner? What proper quickness in conceiving divine
things ; and what rooted inclination to study them, as
persons devoted to matters of infinite importance?
What peculiar fitness have you for the pulpit, qualify*-
ing you, in a plain, serious, orderly, and earnest manner,
to screw the truths of God into the consciences of your
hearers ? With what stock of self-experienced truths
and texts of inspiration did, or do you enter on the mn>
isterial work ? Of what truths, relative to the law of
ADDRESS TO STUDENTS. 13
God ; or relative to sin, Satan, or the desertions and ter-
rors of God, has your soul not only seen the evidence,
but felt the power ? What declarations, promises, of-
fers, and invitations, of the glorious gospel, have ye, with
joy and rejoicing of heart, found and eaten, and therein
tasted and seen that God is good ? Of what inspired
truths and texts can you say, " Even so we have believ-
ed, and therefore we speak :" what we have seen arid
heard with the Father, and tasted and handled of the
word of life, that we declare unto you. Thrice happy
preacher, whose deeply-experienced heart is, next to
his Bible, his principal note-book!
3. Take heed that your CALL from Christ and his
Spirit to your ministerial work be not only REAL, but
EVIDENT. Without this you can neither be duly excited
nor encouraged to your work ; nor hope, nor pray for di-
vine success in it ; nor bear up aright under the difficul-
ties you must encounter, if you attempt to be faithful.
If you run unsent by Jesus Christ and his Spirit, not-
withstanding the utmost external regularity in your li-
cense, call, and ordination, you, in the whole of your min-
istrations, must act the part of a sacrilegious thief and
robber, a pretended and treacherous ambassador for
Christ and his Father, and a murderer of men's souls,
not profiting them at all. What direction -what sup-
port what assistance what encouragementr-r-what re-
ward, can you then expect ? Ponder, therefore, as be-
fore God : Have you taken this honour to yourselves ?
or, Were ye called of God, as was Aaron ? Has Jesus
Christ sent you to preach the gospel, and laid upon you
a delightful and awful necessity to preach it ? While
he powerfully determined you to follow providence, and
every selfish and irregular step towards entrance
14 ADDRESS TO STUDENTS.
into the office, as a mean of eating a piece of bread, or
enjoying carnal ease or honour, did he breathe on you,
and cause you to receive the Holy Ghost ; filling you
with deep compassion to the perishing souls of men, and
a deep . sense of your, own unfitness for such arduous
work, and fervent desire, that if the Lord were willing
to use you as instruments of winning souls, he would
sanctify you, and make you meet for his work ? Per-
haps, providentially shut out from other callings, to
which you or your parents inclined, did you, in your ed-
ucation, go up " bound in the Spirit" by the love of
Christ burning in your hearts, and constraining you
cheerfully to surrender yourselves to poverty, reproach,
and hatred of men, for promoting his name and honour,
and the salvation of men in the world ? What oracles
of God, powerfully impressed on your soul, have directed
and encouraged you to his work ? Know you in what,
form Jesus Christ gave you your commission ? Whether
to " open the eyes of the Gentiles, and turn them from
darkness to light, and from the power of Satan unto
God ; that they may receive forgiveness of sins, and an
inheritance among them who are sanctified by faith" in
him : Or to " go make the heart of this people fat,
their ears heavy," and to " shut their eyes ?"
4. See that your END in entering into, or executing
your office, be single, and disinterested. Dare you appeal
to Him, whose eyes are " as a flame of fire," and who
" searcheth the hearts and trieth the reins," to give to
every man according to his works, that you never in-
clined to be put into the priest's office, that you might
" eat a piece of bread, and look every one for his gain
from his quarter ;" that ye " seek not great things for
yourselves ;" that ye " covet no man's silver, gold," or
ADDRESS TO STUDENTS. 15
" apparel ;" that ye seek not men's property, but " them-
selves, that you may win them to Christ for their eter-
nal welfare;" that ye seek not your own honour, ease,
or temporal advantage, but the things of Christ and his
people ; that ye " seek not honour" or " glory of men,"
but the honour of Christ and his Father, in the eternal
salvation of souls; and have determined to prosecute
this end through whatever distress or danger the Lord
may be pleased to lay in your way ?
5. See that your minds be deeply impressed with
the NATURE, EXTENT, and IMPORTANCE of your ministerial
work ; that therein it is required of you, as " ambassa-
dors for Christ," as " stewards" of the mysteries and
manifold grace of God " to be faithful ;" to serve the
Lord with your spirit, and with much humility in the
gospel of his Son ; to testify repentance towards God,
and faith towards our Lord Jesus Christ, not keeping
back, or shunning to declare every part of the counsel
of God, or any profitable instruction, reproof, or encour-
agement ; and, not moved with any reproach, persecu-
tion, hunger, or nakedness ; to be ready, not only to be
bound, but to die for the name of the Lord Jesus, in
order to finish your course with joy. Bearing with the
infirmities of the weak, and striving together in prayer,
that the word of the Lord may have free course, and
be glorified, and your messages provided by God, and
made acceptable to your hearers, you must labour with
much fear and trembling, determined to know, to glory
in, and make known, nothing but Jesus Christ and him
crucified; preaching the gospel, "not with enticing
words of man's wisdom," as men pleasers, but with
great plainness of speech, in demonstration of the Spirit,
and with power ; speaking the things which are freely
16 ADDRESS TO STUDENTS.
given you by God, not in the words which man's wisdom
teaches, but in " words which the Holy Ghost teaches ;"
comparing spiritual things with spiritual, as haying
the mind of Christ, always triumphing in HIM, and mak-
ing manifest the savour of the knowledge of him in
every place, that you may be a sweet savour of Christ
in them who are saved, and in them who perish ; as of
sincerity, as of God, in the sight of God speaking in
Christ, and through the mercy of God, not fainting, but
renouncing the hidden things of dishonesty ; not walk-
ing in craftiness nor handling the word of God, deceit-
fully, or corrupting the truth, but manifesting the truth
to every man's conscience, as in the sight of God ; not
preaching yourselves, but Christ Jesus the Lord, and
yourselves servants to the church for his sake, alway
bearing about his dying, that his life may be manifested
in you ; and knowing the terror of the Lord, and deeply
impressed with the account, which you and your hearers
must give to him of your whole conduct in the day of
judgment, awed by his infinite authority, constrained and
inflamed by his love, you must persuade men, beseech-
ing them to be reconciled unto God, and making your-
selves manifest to God, and to their*conscience ; and, as
their edification requires, changing your voice, and turn-
ing yourselves every way, and becoming all things to all
men, in order to gain them to Christ ; jealous over them
with a godly jealousy, in order to espouse them to him,
as chaste virgins, travelling in birth, till he be formed in
their hearts. You must take heed to your ministry,
which you have received in the Lord, that you may ful-
fil it ; stir up the gifts, which were given you ; give your-
selves wholly to reading, exhortation, and doctrine ; and
perseveringly take heed to yourselves, and to the doc-
ABDRESS TO STUDENTS.
Srine which you preach; that you may save yourselves,
and them that hear you ; watching for their souls, as
they who do and must give an account for them to God ;
rightly dividing the word of truth, and giving every man
his portion in due season; faithfully warning every man
with tears, night and -day, teaching every man, particu-
larly young ones, and labouring to present every man
perfect in Christ Jesus ; and warring, not after the flesh,
nor with carnal weapons, b.ut with such as are mighty
through God to the pulling down of strong holds, and
casting down imaginations, and subduing every thought
and affection to the obedience of Christ Having him
for the end of your conversation, and holding fast the
form of sound words in faith, and in love to him, not en-
tangling yourselves with the affairs of this life, nor
ashamed of the Lord or of his cause or prisoners^ but
ready to endure hardships as good soldiers of Jesus
Christ, and to endure all things for the elect's sake, that
.they may obtain salvation with eternal glory ; ye must
go forth without the camp, bearing his reproach, and.
exposed as spectacles of sufferings to angels and men ;
must not faint under your tribulations, but feed the flock
of God, which he has purchased with his own blood, and
over which the Holy -Ghost has made you overseers ;
preaching the word. in season and put of season, reprov-
ing, rebuking, and .exhorting with all long-suffering and
doctrine ; taking the oversight of your people, not by
constraint, but willingly, not for filthy lucre of worldly
gain, or larger stipends, hut of a ready mind; neither as
being lords over God's heritage, but as examples to the
flock, exercising yourselves to have a conscience void of
offence towards God and towards man^ having a good
.conscience, willing in all things to Jive honestly, excr-
3
18 ADDRESS TO STUDENTS.
cised to godliness, kindly affectiohed, disinterested, holy,
just, and unblameable, prudent examples of the believers
in conversation, in charity, in faith and purity, fleeing
youthful lusts, and following after righteousness, peace,
faith, charity ; not striving, but being gentle unto all men ;
in meekness, instructing them who oppose themselves ;
avoiding foolish and unlearned questions, and old wives
fables, fleeing from perverse disputings and worldly
mindedness,- as most dangerous snares ; and following
after righteousness, godliness, faith, love, patience, meek-
ness ; fighting the good fight of faith, and laying hold on
eternal life ; keeping your trust of gospel truth and min-
isterial office, and without partiality or precipitancy,
committing the same to faithful men, who may be able
to teach others ; and, in fine, faithfully labouring, in the
Lord, to try, and confute, and censure false teachers 5
publicly rebuke or excommunicate open transgressors,
restore such as have been overtaken in a fault in the
spirit of meekness, and having compassion on them, to
pull them out of the fire, having even the garment spot-
ted by the flesh, and never conniving at, or partaking
with any in their sins. Who is sufficient for these
things ? May your sufficiency be of God ; and as your
days are, so may your strength be.
6. See that ye take heed to your spirits, that ye
deal not TREACHEROUSLY with the Lord. In approaching
to, or executing the ministerial office, keep your hearts
with all diligence ; for out of it are the issues of eternal
life, or death to yourselves and others. Building up
yourselves in your most holy faith, and praying in the
Holy Ghost, keep yourselves in the love of God, looking
for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ unto eternal life.
If you do not ardently love Christ, how can you faith-
ADDRESS TO STUDENTS.
fully and diligently feed his lambs his sheep ? Alas !
how many precious sermons, exhortations, and instruc-
tions are quite marred and poisoned by coming through
the cold, carnal* and careless heart of the preacher, and
being attended with his imprudent, untender, and luke-
warm life ? If you have not a deep-felt experience of
the terrors of fhe Lord, of the bitterness of sin, vanity
of this world, and importance of eternity, and of the
conscience-quieting and heart-captivating virtue of Je-
sus' bleeding love, how can you be duly serious and
hearty in preaching the gospel ? If, all influenced by a
predominate love to Christ, your heart be not fixed on
everlasting things, and powerfully animated to an eager
following of peace and holiness, how can you, without
the most abominable treachery, declare to men their
chief happiness, and the true method of obtaining it ?
If your graces be not kept lively, your loins girt, and,
your lamps burning, all enkindled by the heart-constrain-
ing love of Christ, how cold, how carnal, and blasted
must your sacred ministrations be ? If your work, as
ambassadors of Christ, be to transact matters of ever*
lasting importance between an infinite God and immor-
tal, but perishing, souls of men ; if the honours and pri-
vileges of it be so invaluable, what inexpressible need
have you of habitual dependence on Christ by a lively
faith? What self-denial, what ardent love to Christ
and his Father, what disinterested regard to his honour,
what compassion to souls, what prudence, what faithful-
ness and diligence, what humility and holy zeal, what
spirituality of mind and conversation, what order, what
plainness, what fervour, what just temperature of mild-
ness and severity, is necessary in every part of it! If ?
while you minfeter in holy things, your lusts prevail and
20 ADDRESS TO STUDENTS.
are indulged, you have less of real' or lively Christianity
than the moat weak and uncircumspect saints under
your ehaTge; if your evil heart of unbelief fearfully
carry you off from the living God, and you can live un-
concerned while the powerful arid sanctifying presence
of God is with-held from yourselves or your flocks ; how
sad is your and their case ! If your indwelling pride be
allowed to- choose your company, your dress, your vic-
tuals, nay, your test, your subject, youa- order,- your Ian*
guage ; if it be allowed to indite your thoughts, and, to
the reproach and blasting of the gospel of Christ,- t
deck your sermon with tawdry ornaments and fancies,
"as if it were a stage-play ; tp blunt and muffle up his
sharp arrows with silken smoothness and swollen bom-
bast ; if it be allowed to kindle your fervour, and form
your looks, your tone, your action ; or to render you en-
raptured or self-conceited, because of subsequent ap-
plause ; or sad and provoked, because your labours are
contemned, how dreadful is your danger and that of
your hearers ! How can ministerial labours, originating
in pride, spurred on by the fame of learning, diligence,
or holiness, hurt the interests of Satan, from whose in-
fluence they proceed. If pride be allowed to cause you
to envy or wound the characters of such as differ from,
or outshine you, or to make you reluctant to Christian
reproof from your inferiors, how fearful is your guilt
and danger ! Pride indulged is no more consistent with
a Christian character, than drunkenness and whoredom.
If you take up or cleave to any principle or practice in
religion, in the way of factious contention, how abomina-
ble to God is the " sower of discord among brethren !"
If you undervalue the peace and prosperity of the
Church of Christ, and are not afflicted with her in all
ADDRESS TO STUDENTS. 21
her afflictions, how cruel and unchrist-like your conduct 1
If, in justly proving your opponents deceivers and blas-
phemers, you, by your angry manner, plead the cause
of the devil, will God accept it as an offering at your
hands ? If you are slothful in studying or declaring the
truths of Christ ; if, to save labour or expense, you are
inactive or averse to help such as have no fixed minis-
trations, or to contrive or prosecute projects for advan-
cing the kingdom of Christ, and promoting the salvation
of men, how great is your baseness, how dreadful your
hazard? Think, as before God, did Jesus Christ fur-
nish you for. and put you into the ministry, that yoa
might idle ; away, or prostitute your devoted time, tear
his church, conceal or mangle his truths r betray his in-
terests, or starve and murder the souls of men? Are
not your people the " flock of God, which he purchased
with his own blood ?" Will you then dare to destroy
his peculiar property and portion, and attempt to frus-
trate the end of his death ? Did Jesus die for men's
souls ? And will you grudge a small labour or expense
to promote his honour in their eternal salvation? If
the Son of God was crucified for men, crucified for you,
will you refuse, through his Spirit, to crucify your sel-
fishness, your pride, your sloth, your worldly and covet-
ous disposition, in order to save yourselves, and them
that hear you. While your own salvation, and the sal-
vation of multitudes, are so deeply connected with your
faithfulness and diligence, while the powers of hell and
earth so set themselves in opposition to your work, that,
in your falls, they may triumph over Christ, your Mas-
ter, and his church ; while so many eyes of God, angels,
and men are upon you, why do you ever think or speak
ef eternal things, of heaven and hell, of Jesus' person*
22 ADDRESS TO STUDENTS.
offices, righteousness, love, and free salvation, without
the most serious and deep impression of their impor-
tance ? While perhaps you preach jour last sermon,
and have before you and on every hand of you, hundreds
or scores of perishing souls, suspended over hell by the
frail thread of mortal life, not knowing what a day or
an hour may bring forth ; souls already in the hands of
the devil, and, as it were, just departing to be with him
in the lake, which burns with fire and brimstone ; souls
already slain by the gospel of our salvation blasted and
cursed to them, partly by your means, why do not tears
of deep concern mingle themselves with every point you
study, every sentence you publish in the name of Christ ?
When multitudes of your hearers, some of them never
to hear you more, and just leaping off into the depths
of hell, are, in respect of their needs, crying with an ex-
ceeding bitter cry, Minister, help, help, we perish, we ut-
terly perish, pluck the brand out of the burning fiery fur-
nace ; why spend your devoted time in idle visits, uned-
ifying converse, useless reading, or unnecessary sleep ?
What, if while you are so employed, some of your hear-
ers drop into eternal flames, and begin their everlasting
cursing of you for not doing more to promote their sal-
vation ? When Jesus arises to require their blood at
your hand, how accursed will that knowledge appear,
which was not improved for his honour who bestowed
it ! that ease, which issued in the damnation of multi-
tudes ! that conformity to the world which permitted,
or that unedifying converse which encouraged your
hearers to sleep into hell in their sins! that pride or
luxury, which restrained your charity, or disgracefully
plunged you into debt ! Since, my dear pupils, all the
truths of God, all the ordinances and privileges of his
ADDRESS TO STUDENTS. 23
church, the eternal salvation of multitudes, and the infi-
nitely precious honour of Jesus Christ and his Father,
as connected with the present and future ages of time,
are intrusted to you, how necessary, that, like Jesus,
your Master, you should be faithful in all things to him
who appointed you ? If you do the work of our Lord
deceitfully, in what tremendous manner shall your par-
ents, who devoted and educated you for it ; your teachers,
who prepared you for it; the seminaries of learning, in
which you received your instruction; the years, which
you spent in your studies ; all the gifts which were be-
stowed upon you ; all the thoughts, words, and works of
God in the redemption of men; all the oracles, com-
mands, promises, and threatenings of God, which direct,,
inculcate, or enforce your duty ; all the examples of Je-
sus Christ, and all his apostles, prophets, and faithful
ministers ; all the leaves of your Bible, all the books of
your closet, all the engagements you have come under,
all the sermons which you preach, all the instructions,
which you tender to others, all the discipline, which you
exercise, all the maintenance, which you receive, all the
honours, which you enjoy or expect ; all the testimonies,
which you give against the negligence of parents, mas-
ters, ministers, or magistrates , all the vows and resolu-
tions, which you have made to reform, and all the prayers,
which you have presented to God for assistance or suc-
cess, rise up against you as witnesses, in the day of the
Lord!
7. See that ye, as workmen, who need not be asham-
ed, earnestly labour RIGHTLY TO DIVIDE the word of truth,
according to the capacities, necessities, and particular
occasions of your hearers, giving every one of them their
portion m due season. Never make your own ease,
24 ADDRESS TO STUDENTS.
your inclination or honour, but the need of souls, and
the glory of Christ, the regulator in your choice of sub-
jects. Labour chiefly on the principal points of religion,
to bring down the fundamental mysteries of the gospel
to the capacities of your hearers, and inculcate on their
consciences the great points of union to and fellowship
with Christ, regeneration, justification, and sanctification,
these will require all your grace, learning, and labour.
Never aim at tickling the ears or pleasing the fancies of
your hearers; but at convincing their consciences, en-
lightening their minds, attracting their affections, and
renewing their wills ; that they may be persuaded and
enabled to embrace and improve Jesus Christ, as freely
offered to them in the gospel, for wisdom, righteousness,
sanctification, and redemption. Labour to preach the
law as a broken covenant, the gospel of salvation, and
the law as a rule of life, not only in their extensive mat-
ter, but also in their proper order and connexion. It
is only when they are properly connected, that the pre-
cious truths of God appear in their true lustre and glory.
It is at your infinite hazard, and the infinite hazard of
them that hear you, if you, even by negligence, either
blend or put asunder that law and gospel, which Jesus
Christ has so delightfully joined together. No where
is it more necessary to take heed, than in preaching up
the duties of holiness. Let all be founded in union to
and communion with Christ, all enforced by the pattern,
love, righteousness, and benefits of Christ.
8. You have stated yourselves public witnesses for
Jesus Christ, who profess to adhere to, and propagate
his injured truths, and to commemorate with thankful-
ness the remarkable mercies, which he has bestowed on
pur church and nation, and to testify against, and mourn
ADDRESS TO STUDENTS. 25
ever our own and our father's fearful backslidihgs from
that covenanted work of reformation once attained in
our land. See that ye be judicious, upright, constant,
and faithful in your profession. I now approach death,
heartily satisfied with our excellent Westminister Con-
fession of Faith, Catechisms, and Form of church-govern-
ment, and cordially adhering to these Covenants,}^ which
our fathers solemnly bound themselves and their poster-
ity to profess the doctrines, and practise the duties
therein contained. I look upon the Secession as indeed
the cause of God, but sadly mismanaged and dishonoured
by myself and others. Alas ! for that pride, passion,
selfishness, and unconcern for the glory of Christ, and
spiritual edification of souls, which has so often pre-
vailed ! Alas ! for our want of due meekness, gentle-
ness, holy zeal, self-denial, hearty grief for sin, compas-
sion to souls in immediate connexion with us, or left in
the established church, which became distinguished wit-
nesses for Christ. Alas ! that we did not chiefly strive
to pray better, preach better, and live better than our neigh-
bours. Study to see every thing with your own eyes,
but never indulge an itch after novelties : most of those,
which are now esteemed such, are nothing but old errors,
which were long ago justly refuted, varnished over with
some new expressions. Never, by your peevishness,
contentions, eagerness about worldly things, or the like,
make others think lightly of the cause of God among
your hands. If I mistake not, the churches are enter-
ing into a fearful cloud of apostacy and trouble. But
he that endures to the end shall be saved4 Be ye faith-
ful unto the death, and Christ shall give you a crown of
life. But if any man draw back, God's soul shall have
no pleasure in him.
4
26 ADDRESS TO STUDENTS,
9. Always improve and live on that blessed encour-
agement, which is offered to you as Christians and min-
isters in the gospeL Let all your wants be on Christ.
" My God shall supply all your need according to his
riches in glory by Christ Jesus." Cast all your cares on
him, for he careth for you. Cast all your burdens on
him, and he will sustain you. If your holy services,
through your mismanagement, occasion your uncommon
guilt, his blood " cleanseth from all sin." You have an
M Advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous,
who is the propitiation for your sins." If you be often
difficulted how to act, he hath said, " The meek will he
guide in judgment : the meek will he teach his way* I <
will instruct thee and teach thee in the way, which thou
shalt go. I will guide thee with mine eye set upon thee.
I will lead the blind in a way, which they know not."
If you be much discouraged because of your rough way,
and your want of strength, he has said, " When the
poor and needy seek water and there is none, and their
tongue faileth for thirst, I the Lord will hear them* I
the God of Israel will not forsake them. I will open
rivers in high places. Fear not ; for I am with thee :
be not dismayed, for I am thy God. I will strengthen
thee : yea, I will help thee : I will uphold thee with
the jight hand of my righteousness. Fear not, worm
Jacob, I will help thee, saith the Lord thy Redeemer.
I will make thee a new sharp threshing-instrument, and
thou shalt thresh the mountains. My grace shall be
sufficient for thee : for my strength is made perfect in
weakness^ As thy days are, so shall thy strength be."
If your troubles be many, he hath said, " When thou
passest through the waters, I will be with thee : the
rivers shall not overflow thee : When thou walkest
ADDRESS TO STUDENTS. 27
through the fire, thou shalt not be burnt, nor shall the
flame kindle upon thee." If your incomes be small and
pinching, " Ye know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ,
that though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became
poor, that we, through his poverty, might be rich. He
shall see his seed, the travail of his soul, and be sat-
isfied :" and he has promised, " I will abundantly
bless her provision, and satisfy her poor with
bread. I will satiate the soul of her priests with fat-
ness." A salary of remarkable fellowship with Christ,
and of success in winning souls, is the most delightful
and enriching. If your labours appear to have little
success, be the more diligent and dependent on Christ
" Never mourn as they that have no hope." Let not
"the eunuch say, I am a dry tree." Jesus hath said,
" I will pour water on him that is thirsty, and floods on
the dry ground. I will pour my Spirit on thy seed, and
my blessing on thine offspring. A seed shall serve him.
The whole earth shall be filled with his glory. The
kingdoms of this world shall become the kingdoms of
our Lord and his Christ." Believe it on the testimony
of God himself; believe it on the testimony of
all his faithful servants ; and, if mine were of any
avail, I should add it, that there is no master so kind as
Christ ; no service so pleasant and profitable as that of
Christ ; and no reward so full, satisfying, and permanent
as that of Christ. Let us therefore " begin all things
from Christ ; carry on all tilings with and through
Christ ; and let all things aim at and end in Christ."
DIALOGUES
COJVCEBWIJVG
ELOQUENCE IN GENERAL;
AND
PARTICULARLY THAT KIND, WHICH IS PROPER FOP,. THE
PULPIT.
M. DE FENELON,
Archbishop of Canibray,
PREFACE,
BY THE CHEVALIER RAMSAY.
BOTH the ancients and the moderns have treated of
eloquence, with different views, and in different ways ;
as logicians, as grammarians, and as critics : but we still
wanted an author, who should handle this delicate sub-
ject as a philosopher, and a Christian: and this the late
Archbishop of Cambray has done in the following dia-
logues.
In the ancient writers we find many solid precepts
of rhetoric, and very just rules laid down with great
exactness : but they are oft-times too numerous, too
dry ; and, in fine, rather curious than useful, Our au-
thor reduces the essential rules of this wonderful art,
to these three points ; proving, painting, and moving the
passions.
To qualify his orator for proving, or establishing any
truth, he would have him a philosopher ; who knows
how to enlighten the understanding, while he moyes the
passions ; and to act at once upon all the powers' of the
mind ; not only by placing the truth in so clear a light
as to gain attention and assent ; but likewise by moving
all the secret springs of the soul, to make it love that
truth it is convinced of ? In one word, our author would
have his orator's mind filled with bright, useful truths,
and the most exalted views.
That he may be able to paint, or describe well, he
should have (a poetic kind of enthusiasm ; and know how
to employ beautiful figures, lively images, and bold
touches, when the subject requires them. But this art
ought to be entirely concealed : or, if it must appear.
32 ffi.EF'ACE.
it should seem to be a just copy of nature. Wherefore!
our author rejects all such false ornaments as serve
only to please the ear, with harmonious sounds ; and
the imagination, with ideas that are more gay and
sparkling, than just and solid.
To move the passions, he would have an orator set
every truth in its proper place ; and so connect them
that the first may make way for the second ; and the
next support the former : so that the discourse shall
gradually advance in strength and clearness, till the
earers perceive the whole weight and force of the
truth. And then he ought to display it in the liveliest
images ; and both in his words arid gesture use all those
affecting movements, that are proper to express the pas-
sions he would excite.
It is by reading the ancients that we must form our
taste, and learn the art of eloquence in all its extent.
But seeing that some of the ancients themselves have
their defects, we must read them with caution and judg*
inent. Our learned author distinguishes the genuine
beauties of the purest antiquity, from the false orna-
ments used in after ages ; he points out what is excel-
lent, and what is faulty, both in sacred and profane au-
thors ; and shews us that the eloquence of the Holy
Scripture, in many places, surpasses that of the Greeks
and Romans, in native simplicity, liveliness, grandeur,
and in every thing that can recommend truth to our as-
sent and admiration.
DIALOGUES
CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
THE FIRST DIALOGUE, BETWEEN A. AND B. AND C.
A. WELL, Sir, I suppose you have been hearing
the sermon to which you would have carried me. I
have but very little curiosity that way, and am content
with our parish minister.
B. I was charmed with my preacher. You had a
great loss, Sir, in not hearing him. I have hired a pew,
that I may not miss one of his Lent sermons. O ! he is
a wonderful man. If you did but once hear him, you
could never bear any other.
A. If it be so, I am never to hear him. I would not
have any one preacher give me a distaste of all others;
on the contrary, I should choose one that will give me
such a relish and respect for the word of God, as may dis-
pose me the more to hear it preached every where. But
since I have lost so much by not hearing this fine dis-
course you are so pleased with, you may make up part
of that loss, if you will be so good as to communicate to
us what you remember of it.
B. I should only mangle the sermon, by endeav-
ouring to repeat any part of it. There were a hundred
5
34 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
beauties in it that one cannot recollect, and which none
but the preacher himself could display.
$. Well ; but let us at least know something of his
design, his proofs, his doctrine, and the chief truths he
enlarged on. Do you remember nothing? Were you
inattentive ?"
B. Far from it : I never listened with more atten-
tion and pleasure.
C. What is the matter then, do you want to be en-
treated ?
B. No ; but the preacher's thoughts were so re-
fined, and depended so much on the turn and delicacy of
his expressions, that though they charmed me while I
heard them, they cannot be easily recollected; and
though one could remember them, if they be expressed
in other words, they would not seem to be the same
thoughts ; but would lose all their grace and force.
A. Surely, Sir, these beauties must be very fading,
if they vanish thus upon the touch, and will not bear a
re'view. I should be much better pleased with a dis-
course which has more body in it, and less spirit ; that
things might make a deeper impression on the mind, and
be more easily remembered. What is the end of speak-
ing but to persuade people, and to instruct them in such
truths as they can retain ?
C. Now you have begun, Sir, I hope you will go on
with this useful subject.
dl. I wish I could prevail with you, Sir, to give us
some general notion of the elegant harangue you heard.
B. Since you are so very urgent, I will tell you
what 1 can recollect of it. The text was this,* ' I have
eaten ashes like bread.' Now could any one make a
* Psalm cii. 9.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 35
happier choice of a text for Ash- Wednesday ! he shewed
us that, according to this passage, ashes ought this day
to be the food of our souls ; then in his preamble he in-
geniously interwove the story of Artemesia, with regard
to her" husband's ashes. His* transition to his Ave Maria
was very artful ; and his division was extremely ingen-
ious : you shall judge of it. 1. ' Though this dust,' said
he, ' be a sign of repentance, it is a principle of felicity.
2. Though it seems to humble us, it is really a source
of glory. 3. And though it" represents dfeath, it is a
remedy that gives immortal life,' He turned this divi-
sion various ways, and every time he gave it a new lus-
tre by his antitheses. The rest of his discourse was not
less bright and elegant ; the language was polite ; the
thoughts new ; the periods were harmonious ; and each
of them concluded with some surprising turn. He gave
such just characters of common life, that his hearers
found their various pictures faithfully drawn : and his
exact anatomy of all the passions equalled the maxims
of the great ROCHEFOUCAULT ; in short, I think it was a
master-piece. But, Sir, I shall be glad to know your
opinion of it.
Jl. 1 am unwilling to tell you my thoughts, or to
lessen your esteem, of it. We ought to reverence the
* The Romish preachers, in the preamble of their sermons, addressed them-
selves to the Virgin Mary ; and are ofttimes very artful in their transition to
it, as our author observes. We have a remarkable example of this in one of
the greatest French orators, M L'Esprit Flechier, bishop of Nismes, who seems
to be oftner than once alluded to in these dialogues. In his panegyric on S. Jo-
seph he introduces bis Ave Maria thus, Every thing seems to concur to the
glory of my subject ; the Holy Spirit, Jesus Christ, and Mary, are concerned in
it ; why may I not hope for the assistance of one of them, the grace of the other,
and the intercessions of the Virgin ? To whom we will address ourselves in those
words that the angel said to her, and which S. Joseph no doubt often repeated ;
Hail ! Mary, &c. Panegyriques, Vol. i. p. 71.
36 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
word of God ; to improve ourselves by all the truths
that a preacher explains ; and avoid a critical humour,
lest we should lessen the authority of the sacred func-
tion.
B. You have nothing to fear, Sir, at present. It is
not out of curiosity that I ask your opinion ; but because
I would have clear notions of it ; and such solid instruc-
tions as may not only satisfy myself, but be of use to oth-
ers ; for you know my profession obliges me to preach.
Give us your thoughts therefore, without any reserve ;
and do not be afraid either of contradicting or offending
me.
A. Since you will have it so I must obey your com-
mands. To be free then; I conclude, from your account
of this sermon, that it was a very sorry one.*
B. Why so ?
A. Why ; can a sermon, in which the scripture is
falsely applied ; a scrap of profane history is told after
a dry, childish manner ; and vain affectation of wit runs
throughout the whole ; can such a sermon be good ?
B. By no means : but I do not think that the ser-
mon I heard is of that sort.
A* Have patience, and I doubt not but you and I
shall agree, When the preacher chose these words for
His text, * I have eaten ashes like bread,' ought he to
have amused his audience with observing some kind of
* " A preacher may propose a very regular method, prosecute it very ex-
actly, express himself ail along with abundance of accuracy, and, if you will, of
elegance too ; adorn the whole with many a fine flower and artificial trapping
of language ; in short, deliver a very pretty harangue, a very genteel discourse,
as it is commonly termed ; which yet may prove, after all, but a sorry sermon,
and in reality good for little, but to amuse superficial judges, and to convince
thorough ones, that the man aspires at the reputation, without the qualification,
pf an orator," FORDTCE, on Pulpit Eloquence.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 37
relation between the mere sound of his text, and the
ceremony of the day ? should he not first have explain-
ed the true sense of the words, before he applied them
to the present occasion ?
B. It had been better.
A. Ought he not therefore to hare traced the sub-
ject a little higher, by entering into the true occasion
and design of the Psalm ; and explaining the context ?
Was it not proper for him to inquire whether the inter-
pretation he gave of the words was agreeable to the true
meaning of them, before he delivered his own sense to
the people, as if it were the word of God?
B. He ought to have done so : but what fault was
there in his interpretation ?
A. Why, I will tell you. David, (who was the au-
thor of the cii. Psalm,) speaks of his own misfortunes :
he tells us, that his enemies insulted him cruelly, when
they saw him in the dust, humbled at their feet, and re-
duced (as he poetically expresses it) io ? ' eat ashes like
bread,' and ' to mingle his drink with weeping.' Now,
what relation is there between the complaints of David,
driven from his throne, and persecuted by his son Ab-
salom; and the humiliation of a Christian, who puts
ashes on his forehead, to remind him of his mortality,
and disengage him from sinful pleasures ? Could the
preacher find no other text in scripture ? Did Christ
and his apostles, or the prophets, never speak of death,
and the dust of the grave, to which all our pride and
vanity must be reduced ? Does not the scripture con-
tain many affecting images of this important truth ?
Might he not have been content with the words of Gen-
esis,* which are so natural and proper for this ceremony,.
<* Gen. iii. IP.
38 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
and chosen by the church itself? Should a vain delica-
cy make him afraid of too often repeating a text that
the Holy Spirit has dictated, and which the church ap-
points to be used every year ? Why should he neglect
such a pertinent passage, and many other places of scrip-
ture, to pitch on one that is not proper? This must
flow from a depraved taste, and a fond inclination to say
something that is new.
B. You grow too warm, Sir : supposing the literal
sense of the text not to be the true meaning of it, the
preacher's remarks might however be very fine and solid.
C. As for my part, I do not care whether a preach-
er's thoughts be fine or not, till I am first satisfied of their
being true. But, Sir, what say you to the rest of the
sermon ?
A. It was exactly of a piece with the text. How
could the preacher give such misplaced ornaments to a
subject in itself so terrifying ; and amuse his hearers
with an idle story of Artemesia's sorrow ; when he
ought to have alarmed them, and given them the most
terrible images of death ?
B. I perceive then you do not love turns of wit, on
such occasions. But what would become of eloquence
if it were stript of such ornaments ? Would you confine
every body to the plainness of country preachers ? Such
men are useful among the common people ; but persons
of distinction have more delicate ears ; and we must
adapt our discourses to their polite taste.
A. You are now leading me off from the point. I
was endeavouring to convince you, that the plan of the ,
sermon was ill laid : and I was just going to touch upon
the division of it : but I suppose you already perceive
the reason why I dislike it : for the preacher lays down
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 39
three quaint conceits for the subject of his whole dis-
course. When one chooses to divide a sermon, he should
do it plainly, and give such a division as naturally arises
from the subject itself, and gives light and just order to
the several parts ; such a division as may be easily re-
membered, and at the same time help to connect and
retain the whole ; in fine, a division that shews at once
the extent of the subject, and of all its parts. But, on
the contrary, here is a man who endeavours to dazzle
his hearers, and puts them off with three points of wit,
or puzzling riddles, which he turns and plies so dex-
terously, that they must fancy they saw some tricks of
legerdemain.* Did this preacher use such a serious,
grave manner of address, as might make you hope for
something useful and important from him ? But, to re-
turn to the point you proposed ; did you not ask me
whether I meant to banish eloquence from the pulpit ?
B. Yes. I fancy that is your drift.
Jl. Think you so ? pray what do you mean by elo-
quence ?
* B. It is the art of speaking well.
A. Has this art no other end, besides that of speak-
ing well ? Have not men some design in speaking ? Or
do they talk only for the sake of talking ?
B. They -speak to please, and to persuade others,
/#. Pray let us carefully distinguish these two things.
* "A blind desire to shine and to please, is often at the expense of that sub-
stantial honour which might be obtained, were Christian orators to give them-
selves up to the pure emotions of piety, which so well agree with the sensibility
necessary to eloquence." ABBE MAURI'S Principles of Eloquence^ sect. 9.
" Uncommon expressions, strong flashes of wit, pointed similes, and epigram-
matic turns, especially when they recur too frequently, often disfigure, rather
than embellish, a discourse. It commonly happens, in such cases, that twenty
insipid conceits are found for one thought which is really beautiful." HOME'S
Essays. '
40 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
Men talk in order to persuade ; that is certain : and too
often they speak likewise to please others. But while
one endeavours to please, he has another view; which,
though more distant, ought to be his chief aim. A man
of probity has no other design in pleasing others, than
that he may the more effectually inspire them with the
love of justice, and other virtues; by representing them
as most amiable. He who seeks to advance ,his own in-
terest, his reputation, or his fortune, strives to please,
only that he may gain the affection and esteem of such
as can gratify his ambition, or his avarice : so that this
very design of pleasing is still but a different manner of
persuasion that the orator aims at ; for he pleases oth-
ers to inveigle their affection ; that he may thereby
persuade them to what advances his interest.
B. You cannot but own then that men often speak
to please. The most ancient orators had this view.
Cicero's orations plainly shew that he laboured hard for
reputation : and who will not believe the same of Isoc-
rates, and Demosthenes too ? All the panegyrists were
more solicitous for their own honour, than for the fame
of their heroes ; and they extolled a prince's glory to
the skies, chiefly because they hoped to be admired for
their ingenious manner of praising him. This ambition
seems to have been always reckoned commendable both
among the Greeks and the Romans : and such emula-
tion brought eloquence to its perfection : it inspired men
with noble thoughts and generous sentiments, by which
the ancient republics were made to flourish. The ad-
vantageous light in which eloquence appeared in great
assemblies, and the ascendency it gave the orator over
the people, made it to be admired, and helped to spread
polite learning. I cannot see indeed why such an emu-
DIALOGUES CONCERNING^ ELOQUENCE. 41
lation should be blamed even among Christian orators j
provided they did not shew an indecent affectation in
their discourses, nor in the least enervate the precepts
of the gospel. We ought not to censure what animates
young people, and forms our greatest preachers.
A. You have here put several things together, which,
if you please, Sir, we will consider separately ; and ob-
serve some method in inquiring what we ought to con-
clude from them. Butiet us above all things avoid a
wrangling humour ; and examine the subject with calm-
ness arid temper, like persons who are afraid of nothing
so much as of error, and let us place the true point of
honour in a candid acknowledgment of our mistakes,
whenever we perceive them.
B. That is the exact state of my mind ; or at least
I judge it to be so : and I entreat you to tell me when
you find me transgressing this equitable rule.
A. We will not as yet talk of what relates to preach-
ers ; for that point may be more seasonably considered
afterwards. Let us begin with those orators, whose
examples you vouched. By mentioning Demosthenes
and Isocrates together, you disparage the former ; for
the latter was a lifeless declaimer, that busied himself
in polishing his thoughts, and giving an harmonious ca-
dence to his periods. He had a very* low and vulgar
notion of eloquence ; and placed almost the whole of it,
* In the introduction of this very panegyric, that our author mentions, I-
socrates says, Such is the nature of eloquence ; that it makes great things ap-
pear little ; and small things to seem great ; it can represent old things as new;
and new things as if they were old ; and that therefore he would not decline a
subject that others had handled before him, but would endeavour to declaim bet-
ter than they. Upon which Longinus (5 38.) makes this judicious remark; that
by giving such a character of eloquence, in the beginning of his panegyric, the
orator in effect cautioned bis hearers not to believe his discourse.
6
40 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
Men talk in order to persuade ; that is certain : and too
often they speak likewise to please others. But while
one endeavours to please, he has another view ; which,
though more distant, ought to be his chief aim. A man
of probity has no other design in pleasing others, than
that he may the more effectually inspire them with the
love of justice, and other virtues ; by representing them
as most amiable. He who seeks to advance his own in-
terest, his reputation, or his fortune, strives to please,
only that he may gain the affection and esteem of such
as can gratify his ambition, or his avarice : so that this
very design of pleasing is still but a different manner of
persuasion that the orator aims at ; for he pleases oth-
ers to inveigle their affection ; that he may thereby
persuade them to what advances his interest.
B. You cannot but own then that men often speak
to please. The most ancient orators had this view.
Cicero's orations plainly shew that he laboured hard for
reputation : and who will not believe the same of Isoc-
rates, and Demosthenes too ? All the panegyrists were
more solicitous for their own honour, than for the fame
of their heroes ; and they extolled a prince's glory to
the skies, chiefly because they hoped to be admired for
their ingenious manner of praising him. This ambition,
seems to have been always reckoned commendable both
among the Greeks and the Romans : and such emula-
tion brought eloquence to its perfection : it inspired men
with noble thoughts and generous sentiments, by which
the ancient republics were made to flourish. The ad-
vantageous light in which eloquence appeared in great
assemblies, and the ascendency it gave the orator over
the people, made it to be admired, and helped to spread
polite learning. I cannot see indeed why such an emu-
DIALOGUES CONCERNING^ ELOQUENCE. 41
lation should be blamed even among Christian orators;
provided they did not shew an indecent affectation in
their discourses, nor in the least enervate the precepts
of the gospel. We ought not to censure what animates
young people, and forms our greatest preachers.
A. You have here put several things together, which,
if you please, Sir, we will consider separately ; and ob-
serve some method in inquiring what we ought to con-
clude from them. But let us above all things avoid a
wrangling humour ; and examine the subject with calm-
ness and temper, like persons who are afraid of nothing
so much as of error, and let us place the true point of
honour in a candid acknowledgment of our mistakes.
O '
whenever we perceive them.
B. That is the exact state of my mind ; or at least
I judge it to be so: and I entreat you to tell me Avhen
you find me transgressing this equitable rule.
A. We will not as yet talk of what relates to preach-
ers ; for that point may be more seasonably considered
afterwards. Let us begin with those orators, whose
examples you vouched. By mentioning Demosthenes
and Isocrates together, you disparage the former ; for
the latter was a lifeless declaimer, that busied himself
in polishing his thoughts, and giving an harmonious ca-
dence to his periods. He had a very* low and vulgar
notion of eloquence ; and placed almost the whole of it.
* In the introduction of this very panegyric, that our author mentions, I-
socrates says, Such is the nature of eloquence ; that it makes great things ap-
pear little ; and small things to seem great ; it can represent old things as new;
and new things as if they were old ; and that therefore he would not decline a
subject that others had handled before him, but would endeavour to declaim bet-
ter than they. Upon which Longinus (5 38.) makes this judicious remark ; that
by giving such a character of eloquence, in the beginning of his panegyric, the
orator in effect cautioned his hearers not to believe his discourse.
6
42 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
*
in a nice disposal of his words. A man who employed
ten or (as others say) fifteen years, in smoothing the pe-
riods of a panegyric, which was a discourse concerning
the necessities of Greece, could give but a very small
and slow relief to the republic, against the enterprises of
the Persian king. Demosthenes spoke against Philip in
a quite different manner. You may read the comparison
that Dionysius Halicarnassius has made of these two
orators, and see there the chief faults he observed in
Isocrates ; whose discourses are vainly gay and florid ;
and his periods adjusted with incredible pains, merely to
please the ear : while on the contrary,* Demosthenes
moves, warms, and captivates the heart. He was too
sensibly touched with the interest of his country, to mind
the little glittering fancies that amused Isocrates. Eve-
ry oration of Demosthenes is a close chain of reasoning,
that represents the generous notions of a soul, who dis-
dains any thought that is not great. His discourses grad-
ually increase in force by greater light and new reasons ;
which are always illustrated by bold figures and lively
images. One cannot but see that he has the good of
the republic entirely at heart ; and that nature itself
speaks in all his transports : for his artful address is so
masterly, that it never appears. Nothing ever equalled
the force and vehemence of his discourses. Have you
never read the remarks that Longinus made on them,
in his treatise of the Sublime ?
* In oratoribus vero, Graecis quidem, admirabile est quantum inter omnes
unus excellat. Attamen cum esset Demosthenes, multi oratores magni, et cla-
ri fuerunt, et antea, fuerant, nee postea defecerunt. Cic. Oral. $ 2.
Quid denique Demosthenes ? non cunctos illos tenues et circumspectos (ora-
tores) vi, sublimitate, impetu, cultu, compositione superavit ? non insurgit lo-
cis? non figuris gaudet? non translationibus nitet ? BOB oratione ficta dat caren-
tibus vocem ? Quintil. lib. sii. cap. 10.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 43
*
B. No ; is not that the treatise that Mr. Boileau
translated ? Do you think it fine ?
A. I ani not afraid to tell you that I thirk it surpas-
ses Aristotle's Rhetoric ; which, though it be a very sol-
id tract, is yet clogged with many dry precepts, that are
rather curious, than fit for practice ; so that it is more
proper to point out the rules of art to such as are al-
ready eloquent, than to give us a just taste of rhetoric,
and to form true orators. But Longinus in his discourse
on the Sublime, intersperses among his precepts, many
fine examples from the greatest authors, to illustrate
them. He* treats of the Sublime in a lofty manner, as
his translator has judiciously observed: he warms our
fancy, and exalts our mind ; he forms our taste ; and
teaches us to distinguish what is either fine, or faulty,
in the most famous ancient writers.
B, Is Longinus such a wonderful author ? Did he not
live in the days of Zenobia, and the emperor Aurelian ?
A. Yes ; you cannot but know their history.
B. Did not those days fall vastly short of the po-
liteness of former ages ? and can you imagine that an au-
thor, who flourished in the declension of learning and el-
oquence, had a better taste than Isocrates ? I cannot be-
lieve it.
tfl. I was surprised myself, to find it so : but you need
only read him, to be convinced of it. Though he lived
in a very corrupted age, he formed his judgment upon
the ancient models ; and has avoided almost all the reign-
* Thee, bold Longinus ! all the nine inspire,
And bless their critic with a poet's fire :
An ardent judge, who, zeaJous in his trust,
With warmth gives senten'ce, yet is always just ;
Whose own example strengthens all his laws,
And is himself that great Sublime he draws.
Mr. Pope's Essay OQ Criticism, p. 45.
44 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
ft
ing faults of his own time ; I say almost all, for I must
own, he studied rather what is admirable, than what is
useful ; and did not consider eloquence as subservient to
morality ; nor apply it to direct the conduct of life. And
in this he does not seem to have had such solid views as
the ancient Greeks, and especially some of their philos-
ophers. But we ought to forgive him a failing, for which
Isocrates was far more remarkable, though he lived in
a more refined age. And this defect ought the rather
to be orer-looked in a particular discourse, where Lon-
ginus does not treat of what is proper to instruct men,
but of what is apt to move and seize their passions. I
choose to recommend this author, Sir, because he will
help to explain my meaning to you. You will see what
a glorious character he gives Demosthenes, from whom
he quotes several passages that are most sublime : he
will likewise show you those faults of Isocrates that I
mentioned. If you be unwilling to take the trouble of
becoming acquainted with these authors, by reading their
works ; you may get a very just notion of them by con-
sulting Longinus. Let us now leave Isocrates ; and talk
of Demosthenes and Cicero.
B. You are for leaving Isocrates, because he is not
for your purpose.
Jl. Let us go on then with Isocrates, since you are
Hot yet convinced ; and let us judge of his rhetoric by
the rules of eloquence itself; and by the sentiments of
Plato, the most* eloquent writer among the ancients.
Will you be determined by him?
* Sed ego neque illis assentiebar, neque harum disputationum inventori, et
principi longe omnium in dicendo gravissimo, et Elloquentissimo Plaloni, cujus
turn Athenis cum Carneade diligentius leg! Gorgiam quo in libro, hoc maxirae
admirabar Platonem, quod mihi in oratoribus irridendis, ipse esse Orator Sum-,
jaus yicjebatur. Cic. de Oral, lib. 1.42. Quid denique Demosthenes ?
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 45
B. I will be determined by him, if he be in the right :
but I never resign my judgment implicitly to any author.
A. Remember this rule : it is all that I ask of you.
And if you do not let some fashionable prejudices bias
your judgment, reason will soon convince you of the
truth. I would therefore have you believe neither Isoc-
rates, nor Plato : but judge of them both, by clear prin-
ciples. Now I suppose you will grant that the chief end
of eloquence is to persuade men to embrace truth and '
virtue.
B. I am not of your mind : this is what I have al-
ready denied.
A. . I will endeavour to prove it then. Eloquence, if
I mistake not, may be considered in three respects : as
the art of enforcing truth on people's minds, and of mak-
ing them better : as an art indifferent in itself; which
wicked men may use as well as good ; and which may
be applied tojrecommend injustice and error, as well as
probity and truth : and as an art, which selfish men may
use to ingratiate themselves with others ; to raise their
reputation, and make their fortune. Which of these
ends do you admit of?
B. I allow of them all. What do you infer from this
concession ?
A. The inference will afterwards appear. Have
patience a little ; and be satisfied, if I say nothing but
what is evidently true, till by gradual advances I lead
you to the right conclusion. Of the three ends of elo-
quence, I now mentioned, you will undoubtedly prefer
the first.
illud jusjurandum per csesos in Marathone ac Salamine propqgnatores reipubli-
cae, satis manifesto docet praeceptorem ejus PJatonem fuisse ? quern ipsum num,
Asianum appellabimus plerumque instinctis diyino spiritu vatibus comparandum ?
Quint, lib. xii. cap. 10. See Langimm, $ xiii.
46 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
B. Yes : it is the best.
Jl. What think you of the second ?
B. I see what you drive at ; you are going into a fal- .
lacy. The second sort is faulty, because of the ill use
the orator makes of his eloquence, to enforce error and
vice. But still the rhetoric of a wicked man may be
good in itself, though the use he makes of it be perni-
cious. Now we are talking of the nature and rules of
eloquence ; not of the uses it should be applied to. Let
us keep to the true state of the question.
A, If you will do me the favour to hear me a little,
you will find that I have the point in dispute always in
view. You seem then to condemn the second sort of
eloquence ; or, to speak without ambiguity, you condemn
the abuse of rhetoric.*
B. Right. You now speak correctly; so far then we
are agreed.
A. What say you of the third end of eloquen^p.; I
mean the orator's endeavouring to please others by
talking ; that he may raise his reputation or his for-
tune ?
B. You know my opinion already. I reckon such
an use of eloquence very fair and allowable ; seeing it
excites a laudable emulation, and helps to improve men's
talents.
* When 1 consider ,tlie means of happy living (says an eloquent writer) and
the causes of their corruption, I can hardly forbear recanting what I said before ;
and concluding that eloquence ought to be banished out of all civil societies, as
a thing fatal to peace and good manners. To this opinion I should wholly in-
cline, if I did not find, that it is a weapon which may be as easily procured by
bad men, as by good ; and that if these only should cast it away, and those re-
tain it ; the naked innocence of virtue would be upon all occasions exposed to
the armed malice of the wicked.
Bishop Sprat's Hist, of the Royal Society, p. iii-
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 47
A. What kind of talents would you have chiefly im-
proved ? Suppose you had some new state or common-
wealth, to model, in what kinds of knowledge would you
have the subjects trained up, and instructed ?
B. In every kind that could make them better. I
would endeavour to make them good subjects, peacea-
ble, obedient, and zealous for the public welfare. I
would have them fit to defend their country in case of
war; and in peace to observe and support the laws; to
govern their families ; cultivate their lands ; train up
their children to the practice of virtue, and inspire them
with a strong and just sense of religion : I would have
them carry on such a trade as the state and necessities
of the country might require : and apply themselves to
such arts and sciences as are useful in common life.
These, I think, ought to be the chief aims of a lawgiver.
A. Your views are very just and solid. You would
then have subjects averse to laziness ; and employed
about such useful things as should tend some way or oth-
er to advance the public good.
.Z?. Certainly.
A. And would you exclude all useless professions ?
B. Yes.
A. You would allow only of such bodily exercises as
conduced to people's health, and strength ? I do not
mention the beauty of the body ; for that is a natural
consequence of health and vigour, in bodies that are duly
formed.
B. I would suffer no other exercises.
/?. Would you not therefore banish all those that
serve only to amuse people, and cannot render them fit-
ter to bear either the constant labours and employments
of peace, or the fatigues of war ?
48 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
B. Yes ; I should follow that rule.
A. I suppose you would do it for the same reason
that you would likewise condemn (as you already grant-
ed,) all those exercises of the mind which do not conduce
to render it more strong, sound, and beautiful ; by mak-
ing it more virtuous.
B. It is so. What do you infe^r from that ? I do
not see your drift : your windings are very long.
A. Why ; I would argue from the plainest princi-
ples ; and not advance the least step, without carrying
light and certainty along with us. Answer me, then, if
you please.
B. Seeing we lay down the rule you last men-
tioned, for the management of the body, there is certain-
ly greater reason to follow it in the conduct and improve-
ment of the mind.
A. Would you permit such arts as are only subser-
vient to pleasure, amusement, and vain curiosity ; and
have no relation either to the duties of domestic life, or
the common offices of society ?
B. I would banish all such from my commonwealth.
Jl'. If you allowed of mathematicians then it would
be for the sake of mechanics, navigation, surveying of
land, the fortification of places ; and such calculations
as are useful in practice ; &c. So that it is the useful-
ness of the mathematics that would recommend them to
your patronage. And if you tolerated physicians and
lawyers, it would be for the preservation of health ; and
the support of justice.
B. Right.
A. And with the same view of usefulness you would
admit of all other serviceable professions.
B. Certainly.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 49
A. But how would you treat the musicians ?
JB. I would encourage them.
O
Jl. Would you not lay them under some proper re-
straint, according to the judgment and practice of the
ancient Greeks, who always joined pleasure and useful-
ness together ?
B. Explain yourself a little.
Jl. Though they joined music and poetry together,
and carried both these arts to the greatest perfection;
they applied them to inspire people's minds with forti- .
tude, and noble thoughts. They used poetry and music \
to prepare them for battle ; and carried musicians and
their various instruments, to war. Hence came .drums
and trumpets, which raised in them a spirit of enthusi-
asm, and a sort of fury that they called divine. It was
by music, and the charms of verse, that they softened
savage nations : and by the same harmony, they sweetly
instilled wisdom into their children. They made them
sing Homer's verses to inspire their minds with the love
of glory, liberty, and their native country ; and with a.
contempt of death, and riches, and effeminate pleasure..
They gave their very dances a grave and serious turn :
for it is certain they danced not merely for the sake of
pleasure. We see by David's example,* that the east-
ern people reckoned dancing a serious kind of employ-
ment, like music, and poetry. The mysterious dances
of the priests were adopted by the heathens among their
ceremonies, on solemn festivals, in honour of their gods.
There were a thousand instructions couched under their
poems, and their fables : nay, their most grave and aus-
tere philosophy always appeared with an air of gaiety,
and good humour. All those arts that consisted either
* 2 Sam. vi. 5, 14.
7
5(X DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
in melodious sounds, regular motions of the body, or the
use of words ; music, dancing, eloquence, and poetry,
were invented to express the passions ; and, by that
means, to communicate these passions to others. Thus
did they endeavour to convey noble sentiments to peo-
ple's minds, and give them lively, affecting views of the
beauty of virtue, and the deformity of vice. So that all
these arts, under the show of pleasure, favoured the most
serious designs of the ancients ; and were used to pro-
mote morality and religion. Even the diversion of hunt-
ing was encouraged to train up the youth for war.
Their strongest pleasures contained always some solid
instruction. From which source flowed those many he-
roic virtues in Greece, which all ages have since admir-
ed. It is true, this first kind of instruction was after-
wards changed ; and of itself was accompanied with re-
markable defects. The chief fault of it was, its being
founded on a false and pernicious scheme of religion ; in
which the Greeks, and all the ancient sages of the hea-
then world were strangely deceived ; being plunged into
gross idolatry. But notwithstanding this fundamental
mistake, they chose a very proper way of inspiring men
with religion and virtue : their method was wise, agree-
able, and apt to make a lively, lasting impression.
C. You said that this first institution was afterwards
changed : pray, how did it happen ?
/?. Though virtue gives men the true politeness ; if
great care be not taken, politeness gradually degenerates
into an unmanly softness. The Asiatic Greeks fell first
into this corruption. The lonians grew effeminate ; and
all that coast of Asia was a theatre of luxury. The
Cretans too became corrupted, notwithstanding the wise
laws of Minos. You know the verse that St. Paul quotes
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 51
from one of their own poets.* Corinth was remarkable
for its excessive riot, and dissoluteness. The Romans,
as yet unpolished, began to fall into such practices as
quite relaxed their rustic virtue, Athens was not free
from the general contagion, with which Greece was all-
over infected. Pleasure, which was used at first to con-
vey wisdom into people's minds, usurped the place of
wisdom itself : and in vain did the philosophers remon-
strate against this disorder, Socrates arose, and showed
his deluded fellow-citizens that the pleasure, about which
they were entirely employed, ought only to be used as
the vehicle of wisdom, and an incentive to virtue. Pla-
to. his disciple, (who was not ashamed to compose his
dialogues on the plan and subject of his master's dis-
courses,) banished from his republic all such musical
notes, scenes of tragedy, and poetical compositions, (even
such parts of Homer himself,) as did not incline people
to love order, and wise laws. This, Sir, was the judg-
ment of Socrates and Plato concerning poets and musi-
cians : do you approve of it ?
B. I am entirely of their mind ; and would allow of
nothing that is useless. Since we may find pleasure
enough in solid and valuable things, we ought not to seek
for it elsewhere. In order , to recommend virtue to
men's esteem and practice, we must show them that it
is consistent with pleasure ; and on the contrary, if we
separate pleasure from virtue, people will be strongly
tempted to forsake a virtuous course. Besides, that
which gives pleasure only, without instruction, can at
best but amuse and soften the mind. Do not you see,
Sir, how much a philosopher I am become, by hearing
Tit. i. 12.
52 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE.
you? But let us go on to the end ; for we are not yet
perfectly agreed.
A. I hope we shall be very quickly. And since you
are grown so much a philosopher, give me leave to ask
one question more. We have obliged musicians, and
poets, to employ their art only for promoting virtue ;
and the subjects of your new republic are debarred from
all such spectacles as can only please and not instruct
them. But what would you do with conjurers?
B. They are impostors, that ought to be banished
from all societies.
A. They do no harm. You cannot think they are
sorcerers ; so that you have no reason to be afraid of
their practising any diabolical art.
B. No, I do not fear that : nor should I give the
least credit to any of their senseless stories. But they
do harm enough by amusing the common people. I
will not suffer such idle persons in my commonwealth,
as divert others from their business, and have no other
employment but to amuse people with foolish talk.
Jl. But, perhaps, they get a livelihood that way ;
and lay up wealth for themselves, and their families.
B. No matter : they must find out some honest way
of living. It is not enough that they seek a livelihood ;
they must gain it by some employment that is useful to
the public. I say the same of all those strolling vaga-
bonds, who amuse crowds with silly prattle and foolish
songs. For though they should never lie, nor say any
thing that is immodest ; their being useless to the pub-
lic is guilt enough. So that they ought either to be ex-
cluded from the society, or compelled to follow some
useful occupation.
*#. Would you not at least tolerate tragedians, pro?
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 53
vided they represent no scenes of immodesty or extrav-
agant love ? I do not ask you this question as a Chris-
tian; answer only as a lawgiver, and a philosopher.
B. If tragedies did not conduce to instruction as well
as to pleasure, I should condemn them.
A. Right. In that you are exactly of JPlato's opin-
ion ; for he would not allow of any poems or tragedies
in his republic, that should not first be examined by the
guardians of the laws ; that so the people might neither
hear nor see any thing but what should tend to strength-
en the laws, and promote virtue. In this you likewise
fall in with the sentiments of other ancient authors, who
judged that tragedy ought to turn chiefly upon two pas-
sions; either the terror, that arises from a view 'of the
fatal effects of vice ; or that compassion, which accom-
panies the representation of an oppressed and steady
virtue. Sophocles and Euripides wrote with these
views, and always endeavoured to excite either pity or
terror.
B f I remember I have met with this last rule in Mr.
Boileau's Art of Poetry.
A. You are right. He is a man that knows perfect-
ly well not only the foundation of poetry, but likewise
the solid aim to which philosophy (superior to all arts)
ought to direct the poet.
B. But whither are you leading me all this while ?
^. I lead you no farther : you guide yourself now ;
and are happily come to the conclusion I first proposed.
Have you not said, that in your republic, you would not
suffer idle people who amuse others, and have no other
business but merely to talk ? Is it not upon this princi-
ple that you would exclude all such tragedies as do not
convey instruction as well as pleasure ? Now, will you
54 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
suffer that to be done in prose, that you will not tolerate
in verse ? After such a just rigour against useless poet*
ry, how can you show any favour to those declaimers,*
who talk only to show their parts ?
B. But these orators we were speaking of, have two
designs that are commendable.
A. What are they ?
B. The first is to maintain themselves ; for, by their
profession they procure a subsistence. Their rhetoric
gets them repute ; and this brings along with it that
wealth they stand in need of.
A. You yourself have already answered this pre-
tence ; for, did you not say that it is not enough that one
gains a livelihood, unless he get it by some employment
that is useful to the public ? He, who should represent
tragedies that give no instruction, might get his bread
l}y them : but this would not hinder you from driving
jhim out of the commonwealth. You would say to him,
* Go, choose some regular useful employment ; and do
not divert your neighbours from their business. If you
would have a lawful gain from them, apply yourself to
do them some real service ; or to make them more wise
* Who can behold, without indignation, how many mists and uncertainties
these specious tropes and figures have brought on our knowledge ? how many
rewards, that are due to more profitable and difficult arts, have been still snatch-
ed away by the easy vanity of fine speaking ; for now I am warmed with this
just anger, I cannot withhold myself from betraying the shallownesa of all those
seeming mysteries, upon which we writers and speakers look so big. And in
few words I dare say, that of all the studies of men, nothing may be sooner ob-
tained, than this vicious abundance of phrase, this trick of metaphors, this vola-
tility of tongue, which makes so great noise in the world. But I spend words in
vain ; for the evil is now so inveterate, that it is hard to know whom to blame ;
or where to begin to reform. We all value one another so much upon this beau-
tiful deceit, and labour so long after it, in the years of our education ; that we
cannot but ever after think kinder of it than it deserves.
Bisobp Sprat's Hist, of the Royal Society, p. 112-
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 55
and virtuous.' Now why should you not say the same
to the rhetoricians ?
B. But I have a second reason to offer for tolerat-
ing them.
A. Pray, let us hear it.
B. Why ! the orator serves the public.
A. In what ?
B. He improves people's minds, and teaches them el-
oquence*
A. Suppose I should invent some fantastic art, or
imaginary language, that could not be of any use ; could
I serve the public by teaching such a senseless language,
or silly art ?
B. No ; because one cannot serve others as a mas-
ter, unless he could teach them something that is useful.
./#. You cannot prove then that an orator serves the
public, by teaching eloquence, unless you could first show
that it is an useful art. Of what use are a man's fine
thoughts if they do not advance the public good ? I am
very sensible that they are advantageous to himself;
for they dazzle his hearers ; who have so bad a taste
that they will applaud his skill, and even reward him.
for his useless talk. But ought you to suffer such a
mercenary, fruitless eloquence in the government you
have to model ? A shoemaker is serviceable in his way,
and maintains his family with what he gains by supply-
ing other people's necessities. So that you see the most
ordinary employments tend to some useful purpose ; and
there is no other art but the rhetorican's that serves
only to amuse people with talking. In fine, such elo-
quence can only, on the one hand, satisfy the vain curi-
osity of the hearers, and encourage their idleness ; and,
on the other, gratify the decl aimer's pride and ambition.
56 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE.
But, for the honour of your republic, Sir, do not tolerate
such an abuse.
B. I must grant that an orator's aim should be to
make people more wise and virtuous.
Jl. Do not forget this : you shall see the consequen-
ces of it by and by.
B. Notwithstanding this concession, he, who is em-
ployed in instructing others, may at the same time, en-
deavour to acquire reputation and wealth for himself.
A. I told you before, that we are not now handling
the point as Christians : I need only use philosophy
against you. Let me put you in mind that you grant an
orator is obliged to instruct others with a design to im-
prove them in virtue. Thus we get rid of all useless
declaimers. We ought not even to suffer panegyrists
any farther than they render true wisdom and probity
more amiable by their praises ; and propose models of
virtue* and valour that are worthy of imitation.
B. What, then, is a panegyric good for nothing, un-
less it be full of morality ?
Jl. Have you not granted this already ? Instruction
is the proper end of speech : and the only good reason
for praising any hero is, that we may represent his worth
to others, in order to excite their emulation ; and to
shew them, that virtue and true glory are inseparable.
Therefore a panegyric should be kept free from all gen-
eral, excessive, flattering praises, and such barren thoughts
as do not afford the least instruction. Every thing should
tend to make the hearers in love with what is truly
* Perspicuum est igitur alia esse in homine optanda, alia laudanda. Genus,
forma, vires, opes, divitiae, ceteraque quse fortuna det, aut extrinsecus, aut cor-
pori, non habent in se veram laudem, quae deberi Virtuti uui putatur. Virtus
autem quae est per se ipsa laudabilis, et sine qua nihil laudari potest, tamen habct
plurespartes, quarnm alia est ad laudationem aptior. Cic. de Orat. lib. it.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE^ 57
great and good. But we find that most panegyrists seem
to magnify particular virtues, only that they may the
more effectually praise those that practised them, and
set off their heroes to greater advantage. When they
have any one to praise, they exalt his peculiar virtues
far above all others. But every thing has its turn ; and,
on another occasion, those very qualities, which they
preferred before, must now give place to some other
virtues, that come in course to be-extolled to the high-
est pitch. 'In this respect, I think Pliny is to be blamed.
If he had praised Trajan as a fit model for other heroes
to copy after, this would have been a design worthy of
an orator. But the praise of that prince (however de-
serving he was) ought not to have been Pliny's chief
aim. Trajan should only have been proposed to man-
kind as an imitable example, to allure them to virtue.
When a panegyrist has such a mean view, as to praise
the person, rather than the virtues that render him con-
spicuous, this is only flattery addressed to pride.
B. What think you then of those poems, that were
made in praise of ancient heroes ? Homer has his Achil-
les ; and Yirgil his .ZEneas. Will you condemn these
two poets ?
A. By no means, Sir ; do but examine the design of
their works. In the Iliad, Achilles is the chief hero ;
but his praise is not the main end of the poem. His
character is faithfully drawn with all its defects ; nav,
these very defects are a part of that instruction, which
the poet designed to convey to posterity. The great
design of this work was to inspire the Greeks with the
love of warlike glory ; and a dread of discord, as the
greatest obstacle to success. This moral instruction is
plainly interwoven throughout the poem. The Odyssey-
o
58 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE;,
indeed represents, in Ulysses, a hero more regular, and
more accomplished : but this is still natural:. For, of
course, a man, like Ulysses, whose chief character is wis-
dom, must be more wary, and uniform in his conduct,
than such a rough, warm, forward youth as Achilles. So
that in drawing both these heroes, Homer seems only to
have copied nature. In fine, throughout the Odyssey
we find innumerable instructions for the whole conduct
of life : and one cannot but observe that the poet's de-
sign, in describing a prudent man, whose wisdom makes
him always successful, was to shew posterity what good
effects might be expected from prudent piety, and a
regular life. Virgil in his jEheid, has imitated the Odys-
sey in his hero's character ; and has drawn him brave,
moderate, pious, and steady. But it is evident that the
praise of uEneas was not the poet's principal aim. That
hero was designed to represent the Roman people, who
descended from him ; and Virgil meant to show 7 them
that their extraction was divine ; that the gods had des-
tined them to govern the world : and by this he animat-
ed them to the practice of such heroic virtues as might
support the glory designed for them. Now a heathen
could not possibly devise a nobler moral than this. The
only fault of which Virgil can be suspected, is his hav-
ing had his private interest too much in view ; and his
turning his excellent poem to the praise of Augustus,
and his family, with too great an air of flattery. But
we ought not to criticise any author too severely.
B. But will you not allow a poet, or an orator, to
seek his fortune in an honourable way ?
./#. After this useful digression concernimg panegyr-
ics, we now return to the difficulty you proposed. The
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
question is, whether an orator ought to be entirely dis-
interested ?
B. I do not think that he ought ; for this would
overturn the most common maxims.
A. In your republic, would you not have orators
obliged to the strictest rules of truth ? do not you own
that they ought never to speak in public, but in order to
instruct people, to reform their conduct, and strengthen
the laws ? " '
B. Yes.
A. An orator then should have nothing either to hope
or fear from his hearers, with regard to his own interest.
If you allowed of ambitious,* mercenary declaimers, do
you think they would oppose all the foolish, unruly pas-
sions of men ? If they themselves be subject to avarice,
ambition, luxury, and such shameful disorders, will they
be able to cure others ? If they seek after wealth ; can
they be fit to disengage others from that mean pursuit ?
I grant, that a virtuous and disinterested orator ought
always to be supplied with the conveniences of life : nor
can he ever want them, if he be a true philosopher ; I
mean, such a wise and worthy person as is fit to reform
the manners of men : for then he will live after a plain,
modest, frugal, laborious manner : he will have occasion
but for little ; and that little he will never want ; though
he should earn it with his own hands. Now, what is
superfluous ought not to be offered him, as the recom-
pense of his public services : and indeed it is not worthy
* Jam hoc quis non videt, maximam partem orationis in tractatu aequi boni-
que consistere? dicetne de his secundum debit am rerumdignitatemmalus atque
iniquus? denique demus id quod nullo modo fieri potest, idem igenii, studii,
doctrines, pessimo, atque oplimo viro, uter melior dicetur orator ? nimirum qui
homo quoque melior, Non igitur unquam malas idem homo, et perfectus orator.
Quint, lib. xii. c. 1.
60 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE,
of his acceptance. He may have honour and authority
conferred on him ; but if he be master of his passions,
as we suppose, and -above selfish views, he will use this
authority only for the public good ; and be ready to re-
sign it, when he can no longer enjoy it without flattery
or dissimulation. In short, an orator cannot be fit to
persuade people, unless he be inflexibly upright ; for,
without this steady virtue, his talents and address, would,
like a mortal poison, infect and destroy the body politic.
For this reason Cicero* thought, that virtue is the chief
and most essential quality of an orator ; and that he
should be a person of such unspotted probity as to be a
pattern to his fellow citizens ; without which he cannot
even seem to be convinced himself of what he says ; and
consequently, he cannot persuade others.
B. I am sensible there is a great deal of weight in
what you say : but after all, may not a man fairly em-
ploy his talents to raise himself in the world ?
A. Let us look back always to the principles we laid
down. We have agreed that eloquence, and the profes-
sion of an orator, should be devoted to the instruction of
people, and the reformation of their practice. Now, to
do this with freedom and success, a man must be disinr
terested ; and must teach others to contemn death, and
'* Estenim eloquentia una quaedam de summis virtutibus quae quo major est
yis, hoc est magis probifate juqgenda, summaque prudentia; quaruin virtutum
expeftibus si djcendi copiam tradiderimus, non eos quidem oratores efieceri-
mus ; sed furentibus quaedam arraa dederimus. De Orat. 1. iii. $ 14.
Sit ergo nobis orator quern instituirnus is, qui a M. Cicerone finitur, vir bonus
dicendi peritus Adde quo'd ne studio quidem operis pulcherriini vacare mens,
nisi omnibus vitiis Jibera, potest Quid putamus facturas cupiditatem, avaritiam,
invidiam? quarum impotentissimae cogitationes, somnos etiatu ipsos, et ilia per
quietem visa, perturbent. JYihil est enim tarn occupatum, tarn multiforme, tot
ac tarn variis affectibus concisum atque laceratum, quam mala mens. Quint*
Isb, xii. can. 1,
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 61
riches, and unmanly pleasure. He must infuse into their
minds the love of moderation, frugality, a generous con-
cern for the public good, and an inviolable regard to the
laws and constitution : and the orator's zeal for all these
must appear in his conduct, as well as in his discourses.
But will he, who strives to please others, that he may
make his fortune ; and who therefore avoids disobliging
any hody ; I say, will such an artful, selfish person incul-
cute unacceptable truths with boldness and authority ?
or, if he should, will any one believe a man, who does
not seem to believe himself?
B. But supposing him to be in narrow circumstances,
he does no harm, I hope, by endeavouring to improve
them. *
A. If he be pinched, let him try to mend his condi-
tion some other way. There are other professions that
will easily set him above want. But if he be in such ex-
treme distress as to depend on relief from the public :
he is not yet fit to be an orator. Would you choose men
that are indigent, and almost starving, to be judges in
your commonwealth? Would you not be afraid that their
wants might expose them to corruption ; or betray them
into some dishonourable compliance ? Would you not
.rather choose persons of note and distinction. Avho are
above necessity, and out of the reach of its temptations ?
1?. I believe I should,
Jl. For the same reason, if you wanted orators, that
isj public masters to instruct, reclaim, and form the minds
and manners of the people, would you not choose such
men as wanted nothing, and are far above little selfish
aims ? And if there were others, who had proper talents
for this superior office, but were clogged with their per-
sonal concerns, and narrow views of private interests \
62 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
would you not excuse them from showing their eloquence
till they were more easy and disengaged in their circum-
stances ; and could speak in public without being sus-
pected of any mean design ?
B. It would be better. But does not the experi-
ence of our own age plainly shew, that an orator may
make his fortune by preaching rigid virtue with great
Tehemence ? Where can we find keener satires against
the prevailing corruptions of the age, and severer moral
characters than those which come from the pulpit ? Yet
people are not disturbed at them ; nay, they are pleased
with them ; and the ingenious preacher gets preferment
by them.
4 It is very true ; but moral instructions have no
weight nor influence, when they are neither supported
by clear principles, nor good examples. Whom do you
see converted by them ? People are accustomed to hear
such harangues ; and are amused by them, as with so
many fine scenes passing before their eyes. They hark-
en to such lectures just as they would read a satire : and
they look on the speaker as one that acts his part well.
They believe his* life, more than his talk : and when
* The clergy have one great advantage beyond all the rest of the world in
this respect, besides all others, that whereas the particular callings of other men
prove to them great distractions, and lay many temptations in their way, to
divert them from minding their high and holy calling, of being Christians ; it is
quite otherwise with the clergy ; the more they follow their proper callings, they
do the more certainly advance their general one ; the better priests they aref
ihey become also the better Christians. Every part of their calling, when well
performed, raises good thoughts, and brings good ideas into their minds ; and
tends both to increase their knowledge, and quicken their sense of divine mat-
ters. A priest then is more accountable to God, and the world, for his deport-
ment, and will be more severely accounted with, than any other person whatso-
ever. He is more watched over and observed than all others. Very good men
will be, even to a censure, jealous of him ; very bad men will wait for his -halt-
ing, and insult upon it -, and all sorts of persons will be willing to defend them*
selves against the authority of his doctrine and admonitions, by this, he says^
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 63
they know him to be selfish, ambitious, vain, given up
to sloth and luxury ; and see that he parts with none of
those enjoyments which he exhorts others to forsake ;
though, for the sake of custom and ceremony, they hear
him declaim; they believe and act as. he does. But,
what is worst of all ; people are too apt to conclude 9
that men of this profession do not believe what they
teach : this disparages their function ; and when others
preach with a sincere zeal, people will scarce believe
this zeal to be sincere.
B. I cannot but own that your notions hang well to-
gether : and that they are very convincing when one
considers them attentively. But tell me freely, does not
all you have said on this subject flow from a pure zeal
for Christian piety ?
A. No; if an unbeliever reason justly, he must fall
into the same train of thoughts : but indeed one must
have a Christian spirit to act up t6 them ; for it is grace
alone that can suppress the disorderly emotions of self-
love. When I pressed you with the authority of Socra-
tes and Plato, you would not resign your judgment to
theirs ; and now* since reason itself begins to convince
but does not ; the world AvilJ reverse this quite, and consider rather how a clerk
lives, than what he says. They see the one ; and from it conclude what he
himself thinks of the other ; and will think themselves not a little justified, if
they can say that they did no worse than they saw their minister do before them.
Therefore a priest must not only abstain from gross scandals ; but keep at the
farthest distance from them, such diversions as his health or the temper of
his mind, may render proper for him, ought to be manly, decent, and grave ;
and such as may neither possess his mind or time too much, nor give a bad char-
acter of him to his people. He must also avoid too much familiarity with bad
people ; and the squandering away his time in too much vain and idle discourse.
His cheerfulness ought to be frank; but neither excessive nor licentious.
His friends, and his garden ought to be his chief diversions ; as his study, and
his parish ought to be his chief employments. Bishop Burnet'e Disc, gf the
pastoral care, ch, viii.
64 DlALOfGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE".
you ; and that I need not enforce the truth from author-
ities ; what if I should tell you after all, that I have on-
ly used their arguments on this subject.
B. Is it possible ? I should be very glad of it.
/#. Well then ; Plato introduces Socrates discoursing
with Gorgias, a famous rhetorician, and Callicles, one
of his disciples. This Gorgias was Isqcrates' master ;
and (as Tully tells us,) he was the first man that
boasted of his being able to talk eloquently on every
thing: in which ridiculous vanity he was afterwards im-
itated by other Greek declaimers. These two men*
Gorgias and Callicles, harangued plausibly enough on ev-
ery subject ; being wits that shone in conversation, and
had no other business but to talk finely. However they
wanted, what* Socrates wished every man to have, solid
principles of morality, and a sedate, just Avay of reasoning.
Plato therefore having shown what a ridiculous " turn of
mind these men had ; he represents Socrates as divert-
ing himself with their folly, and facetiously puzzling the
two orators so much, that they could not tell him what
eloquence is. Then he proves that rhetoric, (which was
the profession of these declaimers) is not truly an art :
for, according to him, ' an art is a regular discipline,
which teaches men to do something that will help to
make them wiser, and better than they are.' So that
he allows of no other arts but the liberal ones : and he
shows that even these are perverted, when they are ap-
* Invent! sunt qui, cum ipsi doctrina, et ingeniis abundarent, a re autem
civili et negotiis, animi quodam judicio abhorrerent, hanc dicendi esercitatio-
nem exagitarent, atque contemnerent. Quorum princeps Socrates fuit, is qui
omnium eruditorum testimonio, to ti usque judicio GriccicE, cum prude ntia, et
acumine, et venustate, et subtilitate, turn vero eloquentia, varietate, copia.
quamcumque in partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile princeps cujus ingenium
variosque sermoaes immortaHlati scriptis suis Plato tradidit.
CICERO ds Oral. lib. i. 5 16,
CONCERNING ELOQUENCE!. 65
plied to any other end besides training up men to virtue.
He proves that this was not the aim of the rhetoricians :
that even Themistocles and Pericles had quite other
views ; and that therefore they were not truly orators,
He says those famous men only persuaded the Atheni-
ans to make harbours, and build walls, and obtain victo-
ries : they only made their citizens wealthy, warlike,
and powerful ; and were afterwards ill treated for it j
which was really no more than they might have expect-
ed. If they had rendered the people good and virtu-
ous by their rhetoric, they would have been sure of a
just recompense ; for, he who makes men upright^ and
good, cannot lose the reward of his labour ; seeing virtue
and ingratitude are inconsistent. I need not tell you all
the arguments he uses to show how useless such false
rhetoric is ; for, all that I have said hitherto on this
point, in my own name, is really taken from him. It
will be more proper to represent to you what he says
of the evils that these vain haranguers occasion in the
republic.
B. It is evident that such rhetoricians were danger-
ous in the Grecian commonwealths, where they could mis-
lead the people, and usurp the government.
Jl. That is the chief danger that Socrates appre-
hended from them. But the principles he lays down,
on this occasion, reach a great deal further. In fine,
though you and I speak now of ordering a commonwealth;
our inquiry and conclusions are not applicable to democ-
racy alone ; but to every kind of government, whether it
be strictly a republic, an aristocracy, or a monarchy.
So that the particular form of government does not en-
ter into the present question. For in all countries^ the
rules of Socrates are equally useful.
9
66 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
C. I wish you would explain them to us.
Jl. He says that seeing a man is composed of a mind
and a body; he ought to improve them both. Now
there are two arts that concern the mind ; and two oth-
ers, that relate to the body. The two that belong to
the mind, are moral philosophy, and the knowledge of
the national laws. Under the head of moral philosophy
he comprehends the laws*of nature and nations : and all
those dictates of philosophy that are proper to govern
the inclinations and manners of the whole republic, as
well as of every individual member of it. He consider-
ed the second art, as a remedy that is to be used to
suppress falsehood, injustice, and the like disorders among
the citizens ; for, by it lawsuits are determined ; and
crimes are punished. So that moral philosophy serves
to prevent evil ; and the knowledge of the laws and
constitution, to punish it. There are likewise two arts
for managing the body : the gymnastic art, which by due
exercise and temperance, renders it healthy, active,
vigorous, and graceful ; (for, you know, Sir, the ancients
made a wonderful use of this art ; which we have now
quite lost ;) and the knowledge of physic which cures the
body when its health is lost, or impaired. The gymnastic
art assists the body, as moral philosophy doth the soul ;
namely, to form and improve it ; and skill in medicine is
helpful to the body, as the knowledge of the laws is to
the mind ; for correcting and curing disorders. But this
wise institution was altered, says Socrates ; instead of a
solid, practical philosophy, we have only the vain subtil-
ty of wrangling sophists: a set of spurious philosophers,
who abuse reason ; and, having no sense of public good,
aim only at promoting their own selfish ends. Instead
of attaining a thorough insight into the national laws, peo~
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 67
pie are amused and misled by vain-glorious' ostentation
of these rhetoricians, who endeavour only to please and
dazzle the mind ; and instead of recommending the
knowledge of the public constitution, and the administra-
tion of justice, (which being the medicine of the soul,
should be applied to cure its disorderly passions,) these
false orators think of nothing but how to spread their
own reputation. And with regard to the body, says
Socrates, the gymnastic art begins to be exchanged for
skill in dress ; which gives the body but false, deceitful
ornaments. Whereas we ought to desire only such a
natural comeliness as results from health of body, and
due proportion of its members ; which must be acquir-
ed and preserved by temperance and exercise. The
proper and seasonable use of medicine is likewise laid
aside to make room for delicious dishes, and such pala-
table things as raise and ensnare the appetite. And in-
stead of carrying off gross humours from the body by
proper evacuations, to restore its health ; nature is clog-
ged and overcharged ; and a false appetite is excited
by all the various ways of luxury and intemperance.
He farther observes, that those orators, who, in order
to cure men, should have given them bitter physic, and,
with authority, have inculcated the most disagreeable
truths ; have on the contrary done for the mind, what
cooks do for the body ; their rhetoric is only an art of
dressing up delicacies to gratify the corrupted taste of
the people. All their concern is to please -and sooth
them, by raising their curiosity and admiration. For,
these declaimers harangue only for themselves. He
concludes his remarks with asking, where are those cit-
izens whom the rhetoricians have cured of their vicious
habits ? Whom have they made sober and virtuous ?
68 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
Thus Socrates describes the general disorders, and coiv
ruption of manners that prevailed in his time. But
does he not talk* like one of the present age, who
observes what passes among us ; and speaks of the
abuses that reign in our own days ? Now you have hear,d
the sentiments of this wise heathen ; what do you say
of that eloquence which tends only to please, and give
pretty descriptions; when (as he says} we ought to
cauterize, and cut to* the quick ; and earnestly endeav-*
our to cure people's minds by the bitterness of reme-
dies, and the severity of an abstemious diet ? I appeal
to your own judgment in this case : if you were sick,
would you be pleased with a physician, who, in the ex-
tremity of your illness, should waste his time, and amuse
you with explaining to you some fine hypothesis in an
elegant style ; instead of making pertinent inquiries into
the cause and symptoms of your distemper, and pre-
scribing suitable remedies ? Or, in a trial at law, where
your estate or your life were at stake, what would you
think of your lawyer, if he should play the wit in your
defence, and fill his pleading with flowers of rhetoric
and quaint turns ? instead of arguing with gravity, strength
of reason, and earnestness, to gain your cause ? Our
natural love of life, and well-being, shows us plainly the
* The ornaments of speaking are much degenerated from tfeeir original use-
fulness. They were at first, no doubt, an admirable instrument in the hands of
wise men, when they were only employed to describe goodness, honesty, obedi-
ence ; in larger, fairer, and more moving images ; to represent truth clothed
with bodies ; and to bring knowledge back again to our very senses, whence it
was at first derived to our understanding. But now they are generally changed
to worse uses ; they make the fancy disgust the best things, if they come sound
and unadorned ; they are in open defiance against reason ; professing not to hold
much correspondence with that ; but with its slaves, the passions ; they give
{be mind a motion too changeable and bewitching, to consist with right practice.
Bishop Sprat's Hist, of R.S. p. in,
DIALOGUES CONQEKNING ELOQ.UENCE., 69
absurdity of false oratory, and of the unseasonable os-
tentation of it, in such cases as I have now mentioned :
but we are so strangely unconcerned about religion, and
the moral conduct of life, that we do not observe the
same ridicule in careless vain-glorious orators ; who yet
ought to be the spiritual physicians and censors of the
people. Indeed the sentiments of Socrates on this sub-
ject ought to make us ashamed.
B. I perceive clearly enough that, according to your
reasoning, orators ought to be the defenders of the laws,
and instructors of the people to teach them true wis-
dom and virtue. But among the Romans the rhetoric
of the bar was otherwise employed.,
/?. That was certainly the end of it. For, when
orators had not occasion to represent in their discours-
es the general wants of the republic, they were oblig-
ed to protect innocence, and the rights of particular per-
sons. And it was on this account that their profession
was so much honoured ; and that Tully gives us such a
lofty character of a true orator.*
B. Let us hear then how orators ought to speak.
I long to know your thoughts on this point ; seeing you
deny the finical, florid manner of Isocrates, which is so
much admired and imitated by others.
* Neque vero mibi quidquam prsestabilius videtur, quam posse dicendp tenere
hominum ccetus, raentes allicere, voluntates compellere quo velit ; unde autem
velit, deducere. Ha?c una res in omni libero populo, maximeque in pacatis tran-
quillisque civitatibuspraecipue semper floruit, semperque dominita est. Quid enim
estaut tarn admirabile, quam exinfinita muHitudine hominum existere unum, qui
id quod omnibus natura sit datum, vel solus, vel cum paucis facere possit ? aut
tarn potens, tamque magnificum, quam populi motus, judicum religiones, sena-
tus gravitatem, unius oratione convert! ? ac ne plura, qua? sunt pene innumera-
bilia, consecter, comprehendam brevi ; sic enim statuo, perfect! oratoris mod-
eratione, et aapientia, non solum ipsius dignitatem, sed et privatorum plurimo-
mm. et uoivcraee reipublicae saint em maxime contineri. Cic. de Oral. lib. i. { 8.
70 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
A. Instead of giving you my opinion, I shall go on
to lay before you the rules that the ancients give us :
but I shall only touch upon the chief points ; for, I sup-
pose, you do not expect that I should enter into an end-
less detail of the precepts of rhetoric. There are but
too many useless ones ; which you must have read in
those books where they are copiously explained.
It will be enough if we consider the most important
rules. Plato in his Phcedrus shews us, that the greatest
fault of rhetoricians is, their studying the art of persija-
sion, before they have learned, (from the principles of
true philosophy,) what those things are of which they
ought to persuade men. He would have orators begin
with the study of mankind in general ; and then apply
themselves to the knowledge of the particular genius
and manners of those whom they may have occasion to
instruct and persuade. So that they ought first of all
to know the nature of man, his chief end and his true
interest : the parts of which he is composed, his mind,
and his body ; and the true way to make him happy :
they ought likewise to understand his passions, the dis-
orders they are subject to, and the art of governing
them ; how they may be usefully raised, and employed
on what is truly good ; and, in fine, the proper rules to
make him live in peace, and become entirely sociable.
After this general study, comes that which is particular.
Orators ought to know the laws and customs of their
country ; and how far they are agreeable to the genius
and temper of the people ; what are the manners of the
several ranks and conditions among them ; their differ-
ent ways of education: the common prejudices, and
separate interests that prevail in the present age; and
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 71
the most proper way to instruct and reform the people.
You see, Sir, this knowledge comprehends all the solid
parts of philosophy and politics. So that Plato meant
to shew us that none but a philosopher can be a true,
orator. And it is in this sense we must understand all
he says in his Gorgias, against the rhetoricians ; 1 mean,
that set of men who made profession of talking finely
and persuading others, without eudeavouring to know,
fromlsolid philosophy, Avhat one ought to teach them.
In short, according to Plato, the true art of oratory con-
sists in understanding those useful truths of which we
ought to convince people ; and the art of moving their
passions, in order to persuasion. Cicero* says almost
the very same things. He seems, at first, to think that
an orator should know every thing ; because he may
have occasion to speak on all sorts of subjects ; and
(as Socrates observed before him)t a man can nev-
er talk well on a point of which he is not entirely mas-
ter. But afterwards, because of the pressing necessi-
ties and shortness of life, Tully insists only upon those
parts of knowledge that he thinks the most necessary
for an orator. He would have him at least well in-
structed in all that part of philosophy ,J which relates to
* Ac raea quidem sententia nemo poterit esse omni laude cumulatus orator,
nisi eiit omnium rerum magnarum, atque artium scientiam consecutus. De
Oral. lib. 1. } 6. Oratorem plenum atque perfectum esse eum dicam, qui de om-
nibus rebus possit varie copioseque dicere. Ibid. } 13. verum enim oratorr
quae sunt in hominum vita, quandoquidem in ea versetur orator, atque ea est ea
subjecta materies, omnia qusesita, audita, lecta, disputata, tractata, agitata es^
se debent. Lib. iii. } 14.
t Etenim exrerum cognitione efflorescat, et redandet oportet oratio ; quse,
nisi subest res ab oratore percepta, et cognita, inanem quandam habet elocutio-
nem, et pene puerilem. De Oral. lib. i. 5 6.
^ Positum sit igitur in primis sine philosophia non posse eflici, quern quserimus
eloquentem nee vero sine philosophorum disciplina, genus, et speciem cujusquc
rei cernere, neque earn definiendo explicare, nee tribuere in partes possumijs :
72 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
the conduct and affairs of social life. But above
all things, he would have an orator* know the frame
of man, both with regard to his soul, and body,
and the natural tendency and force of his passions; be-
cause the great end of eloquence is to move the secret
. springs of them. He reckons the knowledgef of the
laws, and constitution, to be the foundation of all public
discourses : but he does not think a thorough insight in-
to all the particular cases and questions in law to be ne-
cessary ; because, upon occasion, one may have recourse
to experienced lawyers, whose peculiar profession it is to
understand and disentangle such intricate points. He
thinks, with Plato, that an orator should be a master^ of
reasoning ; and know how to define, and argue, and un-
ravel the most specious sophisms. He says we destroy
nee judicare qua? vera, quas falsa sint ; neque cernere consequentia, repugnantia
videre, ambigua distinguere. Quid die am de natura rerum cujus cognitio mag-
nam orationis suppeditat copiam? De vita, de officiis,, de virtute, de moribus?
Oral. } 4.
* Omnes animorum motus, quos hominum generi rerum aatura tribuit, peni-
tus pernoscendi. De Oral. lib. i. 4 5. Num admoveri possit oratio ad sensus
animorum, atque motus vel infiammandos, vel etiam extinguendos (quod uoum
in oratore dominatur,) sine diligenlissima pervtsligatione earum omnium rationum,
quae de naturis humani generis, ac moribus, a philosophis explicantur. De Oral,
lib. i. & 14. Quare hie locus de vita et moribus, totus est oratori perdiscendus.
Ibid. J 15.
t Bibliothecas mebercule omnium philosophorum unus mihi videtur duodecim
tabularum libellus, si quis legum fontes, et capita viderit, et auctoritatis pondere,
et utilitatis ubertate superare. Ac si no.s, id quod maxime debet, nostra patria
delectat. Cujus primum nobis mens, mos, disciplina nota esse debet ; vel quia
est patria, parens omnium nostrum, vel quia tanta sapientia fuisse in jure con-
stituendo putanda est, quanta fuit in his tantis operibus imperil comparandist
De Orat. lib. i. 5 44.
\ Nee vero dialecticis modo sit instructus, sed habeat omnes philosophise notos,'
et tractates locos. Nihil enim de religione, nihil de raorte, nihil depietate, nihil
de caritate patriae ; nihil de bonis rebus, aut inalis ; nihil de virtutibus, aut vi-
tiis nihil, inquam, sine ea scientia, quam dixi, graviter, ample, copiose dici, et
potest;. Orat, } 33.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
eloquence, if we should separate it from philosophy : for
then, instead of wise orators, we should hare only trifling,
injudicious declaimers. He further requires riot only an
exact knowledge of all the principles of ethics ; but like-
wise that the orator be fully acquainted with antiquity.*
He recommends the careful perusal of the ancient Greek
writers, especially the historians ; both for their style,
and for the historical facts they relate. He particular-
ly enjoinst the study of the poets : because of the great
resemblance there is between the figures of poetry, and
those of eloquence. In fine, he often declares that an
orator ought to furnish his mind with a clear, comprehen--
sive view of things, before he attempt to speak in pub-
lic. I fancy I could almost repeat some of his words on
this subject ; so often have I read them ; and so strong
an impression did they make on my thoughts. You will
be surprised to see how much knowledge, and how
* Cognoscat etiam terum gestarum et memorise vetem ordinem, maxime sci
licet nostrae civitatis ; sed et imperiosoruffl populorum et regum illustrium
Oescire enim quid antea, quam nalus sis, accident, id est semper esse pnerucd
commemoratio autem antiquitatis, exemplorumque prolatio summa cum delec-
tatione, et auctoritatem orationi affert, et fidem. Oral. 5 34. Apud Grsecos
autem eloquentissimi homines remoti a causia forensibus, cum ad cseteras res il-
lustres, turn ad scribendam historiam maxime se applicaverunt. Namque et He-
rodotus ^et post ilium Thucydides omnes dicendi artificio mea sententia facile
vicit rienique etiam a philo.sophia profectus princeps Xenophon. De Oral. Zz"6,
ii. } 13, 14.
t Legend i etiam poetae, cognoscenda historia, omnium bonarum artium
scriptores. De Oral. lib. i. } 34. Est enim finititnus oratori poeta, numeris ad-
strictior paulo, verborum autem licentia \iberior ; multis vero ornandi generibus
socius ac pene par ; in hoc quidem certe prope idem, nullis ut termini's circum-
scribat aut definiat jus suum, quo minus ei liceat eadem ilia facultate, et copia
Vagari qua velit. Ibid 16.
J Non quseritur mobilitas linguae, non celeritas verborum, non denique ea
quae no.bis non possuraus fingeve, facies, vultus, sonua. In oratore autem acu-
men dialecticorum, sententias philosophorum, verba prope poetarum, memoria
juris consultorum, vox tragoedorum, gestus pene summorum actorutn, est requi-
rendus. Quamobrem nihil in hominum genere rarius pjerfecto oratore inveniri
10
74 DIALOGUES CONCERNIGG ELOQUENCE.
qualities he requires. c An orator, 7 says he, fi ought to
have the acuteness of logicians, the knowledge of philos-
ophers, the style almost of the poets, the elocution and
gesture of the finest actors.' Consider now how much
application is necessary to attain all this.
C. I have observed, indeed, on several occasions, that
some orators, though they have good natural parts, want a
fund of solid knowledge. Their heads seem unfurnished ;
and one cannot but perceive they labour hard for mat-
ter to fill up their discources. They do not seem to
speak from the abundance of their hearts, as if they
were full of useful truths : but they talk as if they were
at a loss for the very next thing they are to say.
A. Cicero takes notice of these kind of people ; who
live always, as it were, from hand to mouth, without
laying up any stock of provision. But the discourses of
such declaimers appear always thin and half-starved,
whatever pains they take about them. Though these
men could afford three months for studying a public ha-
rangue, such particular preparations, however trouble-
some, must needs be very imperfect : and any judicious
hearer will easily discern their defects. They ought to
have employed several years in laying up a plentiful store
of solid notions : and then after such a general prepara-
tion, their particular discourses would cost them but lit-
tle pains. Whereas, if a man, without this preparatory
study, lay out all his application upon particular subjects,
he is forced to put off his hearers with florid* expres-
potest ; quss enim singularum return artifices, singulasi raediocriter adept!' aunt,
probantur, ea nisi omnia summa sunt in oratore, probari non possunt. De
Oral. lib. i. 28.
* There are two extremes to be avoided with the utmost care ; the frigid style,
and the boyish. The former renders a discourse dry and insipid, by a languor
stad flatness of ^expression ; the latter renders it ungrateful and shocking, by
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 75
sions, gaudy metaphors, and jingling antitheses. He de-
livers nothing but indeterminate common-place notions ;
and patches together shreds of learning and rhetoric,
which any one may see were not made one for another. ._
He never goes to the bottom of things, but stops in su-
perficial remarks, and oft-times in false ones. He is not
able to show truths in their proper light, and full extent ;
because all general truths are necessarily connected among
themselves ; so that one must understand almost all of
them, before he can treat judiciously of any one.
C. However, many of our public speakers get repute
by those slight attainments you so much despise.
/?. It is true, they are applauded by women and the
undiscerning multitude, who are easily dazzled and im-
posed on : but this repute is very precarious ; and could
not subsist long, if it were not supported by a cabal of
acquaintance, and the zeal or humour of a party. They
who know the true end and rules of eloquence,* cannot
a swelling loftiness, and affected amplification. Those who use the frigid style,
employ pompous expressions when the subject requires plain ones ; and they
who affect the boyish style, make use of low expressions when the matter re-
quires the loftiest. But our language is become so modest, so reserved, and so
scrupulous, that the frigid style includes all such expressions as are too strong
or too sparkling ; too bold and hardy metaphors, and frequent turns of wit.
And the boyish style comprehends strokes of humour, and quaint conceits upon
serious subjects ; too loose and heavy repetitions in those parts of a discourse
that o*ght to be close and concise ; too violent exaggerations, and too labori-
ous figures. RAPIW. Reflections .sur I'EIofluence.
* Expression is the dress of thought, and still
Appears more decent, as more suitable ;
A low conceit in pompous words exprest,
Is like a clown in regal purple drest.
For different styles with different subjects sort,
As several garbs with country, town aud court.
Some by old words to fame have made pretence ;
Ancients in phrase, mere moderns in their sense !
Such labour'd nothings, in so strange a style, '
Amaze th' unlearned, and make the learned smile.
POPE,
76 ; DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE*
hear such empty, vain haranguers, without satiety,
gust, and contempt.
C. It seems then you would have a man wait sever-
al years before he attempt to speak in public ; for the
flower of his age must be spent in attaining that vast fund
of knowledge, which you reckon necessary to an orator :
and then he must be so far advanced in years, that he
will have but little time to exert his talents.
A. I would have him begin to exert them betimes :
for I know very well how great the power of action is.
But under the pretence of exercising his parts, I would
not have him immediately engage himself in any kind pf
employment that will take off his mind from his studies,
A youth may try his skill, from time to time : but for
several years, a careful perusal of the best authors ought
^jto be his main business.
C. Your judicious observation puts me in mind of a
preacher I am acquainted with; who lives, as you say,
from hand to mouth ; and never thinks of any subject
till he be obliged to treat of it 5 and then he shuts him-
self up in his closet, turns over his concordance, combe-
fix, and polyanthea, his collections of sermons ; and com-
mon-place book of separate sentences and book quota-
tions thathe has gathered together,
Ji. You cannot but perceive, Sir, that this method
will never make him an able, judicious preacher. In
such cases, a man cannot talk with strength and clear-
ness ; he is not sure of any thing he says ; nor doth any
thing flow easily from him. His whole discourse has a
borrowed air ; and looks like an awkward piece of patch-
work. Certainly those are much to be blamed, who are
so impatiently fond of showing their parts.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 77
B. Before you leave us, Sir, pray tell us what you
reckon the chief effect of eloquence.
A. Plato says an oration is so far eloquent as it affects
the hearer's mind. By this rule you may judge certain-
ly of any discourse you hear ; if an harangue leave you
cold and languid ; and only a'muses your mind, instead of
enlightening it ; if it does not move your heart and pas-
sions, however florid and pompous it may be, it is not
truly eloquent. Tully approves of Plato's sentiments on.
this point ; and tells us* that the whole drift and force
of a discourse should tend to move those secret springs
of action that nature has placed in the hearts of men.
Would you then consult your own mind to know wheth-
er those you hear be trujy eloquent ? If they make a
lively impression upon you, and gain your attention and
assent to what they say ; if they move and animate your
passions, so as to raise you above yourself,t you may be
assured they are true orators. But if instead of affect-
ing you thus, they only please or divert you, and make
you admire the brightness of their thoughts, or the beau-
ty and propriety of their language, you may freely pro-
nounce them to be mere deelaimers.
B. Stay a little, Sir, if you please, till I ask you a
few more questions.
Jl. I wish I could stay longer, gentlemen ; for your
conversation is very engaging; but I have an affair to
despatch which will not admit of a delay. Tomorrow
I will wait on you again ? and then we shall finish this
subject at our leisure;
B. Adieu, then, Sir, till tomorrow.
* Lib. i. } 5. lib. ii. $ 82. t See Lpnginus, ? viij
SECOND DIALOGUE.
B. You are extremely kind, Sir, in coming so punc-
tually. Your conversation yesterday was so agreeably
instructive, that we longed impatiently to hear you again
upon the same subject.
C. For my part, I made what haste I could, lest I
should have come too late ; for I was unwilling to lose
any part of your discourse.
A. Such conferences are very useful, among those
who really love truth, and talk with temper ; for then
they exchange their best thoughts, and express them as
clearly as they can. As for myself, gentlemen, I find an
advantage in conversing with you ; seeing you are not
displeased at the freedom I take.
B. Let us leave off compliments, Sir ; I know best
how to judge of myself; and I perceive clearly that
without your assistance I should have continued in sev-
eral errors. I entreat you, Sir, to go on, and set me en-
tirely right in my notions of eloquence.
Jl. Your mistakes, (if you will allow me to call them
so,) prevail among most people of worth and learning,
who have not examined this matter to the bottom.
B. Let us lose no time in preamble ; we shall have
a thousand things to say. Proceed, therefore, Sir, to rec-
tify my mistakes ; and begin at the point where we left
off yesterday.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE, 79
*& Of what point were we talking, when we part-
ed ? I have really forgot.
C. You were speaking of that kind of eloquence
which consists entirely in moving the passions.
B. Yes ; hut I could not well comprehend that the
whole design of rhetoric is to move the passions. Is
that your opinion, Sir ?
A. By no means.
C. It seems then I mistook you yesterday.
A. What would you say of a man, who should per-
suade without any proof; and affect his hearers, with-
out enlightening them ? You could not reckon him a
true orator. He might seduce people by this art of
persuading them to what he would, without showing
them that what he recommends is right. Such a per-
son must prove very dangerous in the commonwealth ;
as we have seen before from the reasoning of Socrates.
B. It is very true.
A. But on the, other hand, what would you think of
a man, who in his public discourses should demonstrate
the truth, in a plain, dry, exact, methodical manner; or
make use of the geometrical way of reasoning ; without
adding any thing to adorn or enliven his discourse?
Would you reckon him an orator?
B. No ; I should think him a philosopher only.
/ To make a complete orator then, we must find
a philosopher, who knows both how to demonstrate any
truth; and at the same time, to give his accurate rea-
soning all the natural beauty and vehemence of an agree-
able, moving discourse, to render it entirely eloquent.
And herein lies the difference between the clear, con-
vincing method of philosophy, and the affecting, per-
suasive art of eloquence.
80 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
C. What do you say is the difference ?
#. I say a philosopher's aim is merely to demon-
strate the truth, and^ain your assent ; while the orator
not only convinces your judgment, but commands your
passions.
C. I do not take your meaning exactly, yet. When
a hearer is fully convinced, what is there more to be
done ?
A. There is still wanting what an orator would do
more than a metaphysician, in proving the existence of
God. The metaphysician would give you a plain de-
monstration of it ; and stop at the speculative view of
that important truth. But the orator would further
add whatever is proper to excite the most affecting sen-
timents in your mind; and make, you love that glorious
Being whose existence he had proved. And this is what
we call persuasion.
C. Now I understand you perfectly well.
A. You see then what reason Cicero had to say,
that we must never separate philosophy from eloquence*
For, the art of persuading without wisdom, and previous
instruction, must be pernicious : and wisdom alone, with-
out the art of persuasion, can never have a sufficient in-
fluence on the minds of men ; nor allure them to the
love and practice of virtue. I thought it proper to ob-
serve this by the by, to show you how much those of
the last age were mistaken in their notions of this
matter. For, on the one hand there were some men of
polite learning, who valued nothing but the purity of
languages, and books elegantly written ; but having no
solid principles of knowledge, with their politeness and
erudition, they were generally libertines. On the, other
hand, there were a set of dry, formal scholars, who de-
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENC. 81
livered their instructions in such a perplexed, dogmat-
ical, unaffecting manner as disgusted every body. Ex-
cuse this digression. I return now to the point ; and
must remind you that persuasion has this advantage be-
yond mere conviction^ or demonstration ; that it not only
sets truth in the fullest light, but represents it as amia-
ble ; and engages men to love and pursue it.* The
whole art of eloquence, therefore, consists in enforcing
the clearest proofs of any truth, with such powerful mo-
tives as may affect the hearers, and employ their passions
to just and worthy ends ; to raise their indignation at
ingratitude ; their horror against cruelty ; their compas-
sion for the miserable ;' their love of virtue ; and to
direct every other passion to its proper objects. This
is what Plato calls affecting the minds of an audience ;
and moving their bowels. Do you understand me, Sir ?
B. Very plainly; and I see too that eloquence is not
a trifling invention to amuse and dazzle people with pom-
pous language; but that it is a very serious art; .and
serviceable to morality.
A. It is both a serious and a difficult art. For which
reason Tully said he had heard several persons declaim
in an elegant, engaging manner ; but that there were but
very few complete orators, who knew how to seize and
captivate the heart.
C. I am not surprised at that ; for I see but very
few who aim at it ; nay, I freely own that Cicero him-
* Omnes animorum motus, quos hominum g,eneri rerum natura tribuit, pen-
itus pernoscendi ; quod omnis vis ratioque dicendi in eorum qui audiunt, raenti-
bus aut sedandis, aut excitandis, exprimenda est. Cic. De Oral. lib. i. $ 5.
Maximaque pars orationis admovenda est ad anitnorum motua nonnunquam aut
cohortatione, aut commemoratione, aliqua, aut in spem, aut in metum, aut ad
cupiditatem, aut ad gloriam concitandos : saspe etiam a temeritate s fracundia,
spe, injtiria, credulitate revocandos. Ibid, lib, ii. 5 82.
11
32 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE,
self, who lays down this rule, seems oftentimes to for-
get it. What do you think of those rhetorical flowers
with which he embellished his harangues ? They might
amuse the fancy, but could not touch the heart.
A. We must distinguish, Sir, between Tully's ora-
tions. Those he composed in his youth, (when he chief-
ly aimed at establishing his character,) haye oft-times
the gay defect you speak of. He was then full of am-
bition; and far more concerned for his own fame, than
for the justice of his cause. And this will always be the
case when people employ one to plead for them, who
regards their business no farther than as it gives him an
opportunity of distinguishing himself, and of shining in
his profession. Thus we find that among the Romans
their pleading at the bar ? was oft-times nothing else but
a pompous declamation. After all we must own that
Tully's* youthful and most elaborate orations show a
* Nunc causa perorata, res ipsa et periculi magnitude, C. Aquilli, cogere
videtur, ut te, atque eos, qui tibi in consilio sunt, obsecret, obtesteterque P.
Quinlius per senectutem ac soiitudinem suam, nihil aliud, nisi ut vestrae naturae,
bonitatique obsequamini ; ut, cum veritas hsec facial, plus hujusinopiapossit ad
misericordiam quam illius opes ad crudelitatem si quse pudore ornamenta sibi
peperit, JSsevi, ea potest contra petulantiam, te defendente, obtinere ; spes estet
hunc miserum atquc infelicem aliquando tandem posse consistere. Sin et pote-
rit Maevius id quod libet ; et ei Hbebit, quod non licet ; quid agendum est ? Qui
Deus appellandus est ? Cujus honjiuis fides imploranda ? Ab ipso [Naevio]
repudiatus, ab amicis ejus non snblevatus ; ab omni magistratu agitatus atquc
perterritus, quern prseter te appellet, [C. Aquilli] habet neminem ; tibi se, tibi
suas omnes opes, fortunasque commendat; tibi committit existimationem ac
spem reliquse vitae. Multis vexatus contumeliis, plurimis jactatus injuriis non
turpis ad te, sed miser confugit ; e fundo ornatissimo dejectus, ignominiis omni-
bus appetitus itaque te hoc obsecrat, C. Aquilli, ut quam existimationem, quam
honestatem injudicium tuum r prope acta jam oetate (fecuraaque attulit, earn
Kceat ei secum ex hoc loco efferre ; ne is, de cujus officio nemo unquam- dubita-
vit, sexagesimo denique anno, dedecore, macffla, turpissimaque ignominia note*
tur ; ne ornamentis ejus omnibus, Sex. Naevius pro spoliis abutatur ; ne per te
ferat, quo minus, quae existimatio P. Q,uintiuni usque ad senectutem perduxit,
sadem usque ad roaum prosequatur. Cie. Orat.yro P. Quintio.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 83
great deal of his moving and persuasive art. But to form
a just notion of it, we must observe the harangues he
made in his more advanced age, for the necessities of
the republic-. For then, the experience he had in the
weightiest affairs, the love of liberty, and the fear of
those calamities that hung over his head, made him .dis-
play the utmost efforts of his eloquence. When he en-
deavoured to support and revive expiring liberty, and to
animate the commonwealth against Anthony, his enemy 5
you do not see him use points of wit and quaint antithe-
ses : he is then truly eloquent. Every thing seems art>
less, as it ought to be, when one is vehement. With a
negligent air, he delivers the most natural and affecting
sentiments ; and says every thing that can move' and an-
imate the passions.
C. You have often spoke of witty conceits and quaint
turns, Pray, what do you mean by these expressions ?
For I can scarce distinguish those witty turns from the
other ornaments of discourse. In my opinion, all the
embellishments of speech flow from wit, and a vigorous
fancy.
/?. But Tully thinks, there are many expressions that
owe all their beauty and ornament to their force and
propriety ; and to the nature of the subject they are ap-
plied to.
C. I do not exactly understand these terms ; be pleas-
ed to show me in a familiar way, how I may readily dis-
tinguish between a flash of wit, (or quaint turn,) and a
solid ornament, or noble, delicate thought.*
* True wit is nature to advantage dress'd,
What oft was thought, but ne'er so well express'd ;
Something, whose truth convinced at sight we find s
That gives us back the image of ouf mind.
84 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE.
A. Reading and observation will teach you best :
there are a hundred different sorts of witty conceits.
C. But pray, Sir, tell me at least some general mark
by which I may know them : is it affectation ?
A. Not every kind of affectation, but a fond desire
to please, and show one's wit.
C. This gives me some little light ; but I want still
some distinguishing marks, to direct my judgment.
A. I will give you one then, which perhaps will sat-
isfy you. We have seen that eloquence consists not
only in giving clear, convincing proofs ; but likewise in
the art of moving the passions. Now in order to move
them, we must be able to paint them well ; with their
various objects and effects. So that I think the whole
art of oratory may be reduced to proving, painting, and
raising the passions. Now all those pretty, sparkling,
quaint thoughts that do not tend to one of these ends,
are only witty conceits.*
C. What do you mean by painting ? I never heard
that term applied to rhetoric.
Jl. To paint.t is not only to describe things ; but to
. As shades more sweetly recommend the light;
So modest plainness sets off sprightly wit.
For works may have more wit than does them good ;
As bodies perish through excess of blood.
Pope's Essay on Criticism.
* 1 cannot forbear warning you, in the most earnest manner, against endeav-
ouring at wit in your sermons, because, by the strictest computation, it is very
near a million to one that you have none ; and because too many of your calling
have consequently made themselves everlastingly ridiculous by attempting it. 1 re?
member several young men in this town,who could never leave the pulpit under half
a dozen conceits ; and this faculty adhered to those gentlemen a longer or a shorter
time, exactly in proportion to their several degrees of dulness ; accordingly, I
am told that somp of them retain it to this day. I heartily wish the brood were
at an end. Swiff s Letter to a Young Clergyman.
t See Longinus, } xv
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 85
represent the circumstances of them, in such a lively,*
sensible manner, that the hearer shall fancy he almost
sees them with his eyes. For instance ; if a dry histo-
rian were to give an account of Dido's death, he would
only say, she was overwhelmed with sorroAV after the
departure of ./Eneas ; and that she grew weary of her
life, so went up to the top of her palace, and, lying
down on her funeral pile, she stabbed herself. Now
these words would inform you of the fact ; but you .do
not see it. When you read the story in Virgil, he sets
it before your eyes.t When he represents all the cir-
cumstances of Dido's despair ; describes her wild rage ;
and death already staring in her aspect; when he makes
her speak at the sight of the picture and sword that
JEneas left, your imagination transports you to Carth-
age ; where you see .the Trojan fleet leaving the shore,
and the queen quite inconsolable. You enter into all
her passions, and into the sentiments of the supposed
spectators. It is not Virgil you then hear : you are too
attentive to the last words of unhappy Dido, to think of
him. The poet disappears ; and we see only what . he
describes ; and hear those only whom he makes to
speak? Such is the force of a natural imitation, and of
painting in language. Hence it conies that the painters
and the poets are so nearly related ; the one paints for
the eyes ; and the other for the ears : but both of them
* Plus est evidentia, rel ut alii dicunt, repraesentalio, quam perspicuitas ; et
illad quidera patet ; haec se quodammodo ostendit magna virtus est, res de
quibus loquimur, clare atque ut cerni mdeantur, enunciare. NOB enim satis effi-
cit, neque ut debet plene dominatur oratio, si usque ad aures volet, atque ea sibi
judex de quibus cognoscit, narrari credit, non exprimi, et oculis mentis ostendi
atque hujus summae, judicio quidem meo, virtutis facillima est via. Naturam
iotqeamur, hanc sequamur. Quintil. lib. viii, c, 3,
t -E-neid, lib. iv 4
86 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
ought to convey the liveliest pictures to people's imagi-
nation. I have taken an example from a poet to give
you a livelier image of what I mean by painting in elo-
quence : for poets paint in a stronger manner than or a*
tors. Indeed the main thing in which poetry differs
from eloquence is, that the poet paints with enthusiasm,
and gives bolder touches than the orator. But prose
allows of painting in a moderate degree ; for, without
lively descriptions, it is impossible to warm the hearer's
fancy, or to stir his passions. A plain narrative does
not move people : we must not only inform them of
facts ; but strike their senses,* by a lively, moving rep-
resentation of the manner and circumstances of the facts
we relate.
C. I never reflected on this before. But seeing
what you call painting is essential to oratory; does it
not follow that there can be no true eloquence, without
a due mixture of poetry ?
/#. You are right : only we must exclude versifica-
tion ; that is, a strict regard to the quantity of syllables,
and the order of words in which the poet is obliged to
express his thoughts, according to the measure or verse
he writes in. Versification indeed, if it be in rhyme, is
* Toys Se pYjfopixns fyavtacnag xahfaaftov aet to sp-
vtpaxtov xai eva^feg. KaJlaTcu (lev yap xowoc, <^cwra-
, Ttav Evvoyj[ia T^oyov ysvvvi'tixov oTtQffsv TtapiGfanevov
' 7ii fovrav xsxpattvixs tovvofia, etav a /Uypg vrto
XOLL naBovg fiherteiv Sowpg, xai vn' ofyiv
axovovtfw. Tt ovv w fatopixvi ^KWtfacrta Sv
(lev tffG)g xcu> a/l/la foig hoyoig svayavia, xau
Ttpotrettr^epet?'' xafaxipvapeviq yLevfoi *ou$
9 ov neiQei <tov axpowtviv povovj a^/la xat Sov
LONGINUS, xv.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE, 87
what injudicious people reckon to be the whole of poe-
try. Some fancy themselves to be poets, because they
have spoken or writ in measured words ; but there are
many who make verses without poetry; and others are
very poetical without making verses.* If therefore we
set versifying aside, poetry in other respects is only a
lively fiction that paints nature. And if one has not this
genius for painting, he will never be able to imprint
things on the hearer's mind : but his discourse will be
flat, languid, and wearisome. Ever since the fall of
Adam, man's thoughts have been so low and grovelling,
that they are uaattentive to moral truths ; and can
scarce conceive any thing but what affects their senses,
In this consists the degeneracy of human nature. Peo-
ple grow soon weary of contemplation ; intellectual ideas
do not strike their imagination j so that we must use
sensible and familiar images to support their attention,
and convey abstracted truths to their minds/j" Hence it
came, that soon after the fall, the religion of all the an-
cients consisted of poetry and idolatry ; which were al-
ways joined together in their various schemes of super-
stition. But let us not wander too far you see plainly
that poetry, I mean, the lively painting of things, is, as it
were, the very soul of eloquence.
* The adventures of Telemachus, composed by our ingenious author, are
entirely written in that poetic prose he here speaks of. M. Bossu, the greatest
modern critic, does not think that work can be called a poem ; but he owns the
distinction that our author here takes notice of. ' There is good reason, says he, to
distinguish such artless composures (turned into verse) from true poetry, by giv-
ing them the name of versification ; and to make of versification and poetry, as it
were, two different arts. And indeed, is there a greater difference between
grammar and rhetoric, than between the art of making verses, and that of in-
Treating a poem? 1 Traits dupoeme epigue, liv. i. ch. 5.
t Respicere exemprar vita? morumque jubebo
Doctum imitatorera, et vera? hinc ducere voces,
JTor. th A . P,
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE,
C. But if true orators be poets, I should think that
poets are orators too ; for poetry is very proper to per-
suade.
~/#. Yes ; they have the very same end. All the
difference between them consists in what I have told
you. Orators are not possessed with that enthusiasm,
which fires the poet's breast, and renders him more
lively, more sublime, and bolder in expression. You re-
member the passage I quoted from Cicero.
C. Which ? is it not
cJ. That an orator ought to have the style almost of
a poet ; that almost points out the difference between
them.
C. I understand you. But you do not come to the
point you proposed to explain to us.
A. Which?
C. The rule for distinguishing between witty turns
and solid ornaments.
A. You will soon comprehend that. For of what
use in discourse can any ornament be, that does not tend .
either to prove, to paint, or to affect ?
C. It may serve to please.
A. We must distinguish here between such orna-
ments as only please ; and those that both please and
persuade. That, which serves to please in order to
persuade, is good and solid : thus we are pleased with
strong and clear arguments. The just and natural emo-
tions of an orator have much grace and beauty in them :
and his exact and lively painting charms us. So that all
the necessary parts of eloquence are apt to please ; but
yet pleasing is not their true aim. The question is,
whether we shall approve such thoughts and expressions
as may perhaps give an amusing delight ; but in other
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 89
respects, are altogether useless : and these I call quaint
turns, and points of wit. You must remember now that
I allow all those graces of style, and delicate thoughts
that tend to persuasion : I only reject those vain, affect-
ed ornaments that the self-conceited author uses, to
paint his own character, and amuse others with his wit :
instead of filling their minds entirely with his subject.
In fine ; I think we ought to condemn not only all jingle
and playing with words, as a thing extremely mean and
boyish ; but even all witty conceits, and fanciful turns ;
I mean, such thoughts as only flash and glitter upon the
fancy ; but contain nothing that is solid, and conducive
to persuasion.
C. I could agree to that ; but that I am afraid such
severity would retrench the chief beauties of discourse,
A. Do not you reckon Homer and Virgil very agree-
able authors ? are they not the most delicate you ever
read? and yet in them you do not find what we call
points of wit. Their poems are full of a noble simplicity :
their art is entirely concealed ;* nature itself appears in
all that they say. We do not find a single word that
seems purposely designed to shew the poet's wit. They
thought it their greatest glory never to appear ; but to
employ our attention on the objects they describe : as a
painter endeavours to set before your eyes wide forests,
mountains, rivers, distant views, and buildings : or the
* When first young Maro sung of kings and wars,
'Ere warning Phoebus touch'd his trembling ears,
Perhaps he seem'd above the critic's law,
And but from nature's fountains scorn'd to draw ;
But when t' examine every part he came,
Nature and Homer were, he found, the same.
Learn hence for ancient rules a just esteem ;
To copy nature is to copy them.
Pop?,
12
SO DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE*
adventures, actions, and different passions of men, in such
a lively manner, that you cannot trace the masterly strokes
of his pencil : for art looks mean and coarse when it is
perceived* Plato, (who had examined this matter more
thoroughly than any other orator, or critic,) assures us
that in composing, the poet should always keep out of
sight, make himself be quite forgot by his readers, and
represent only those things and persons, which he would
set before their eyes. You see how much the ancients
excelled us in just and lofty sentiments.
B. I see the use and necessity of painting, in elo-
quence : let us next know the nature and use of those
affecting movements you spoke of.
*fl. They serve to raise in the hearer's mind such
emotions as answer the orator's purpose.
C. But in what do these movements of an orator
consist ?
/#. In his words, and in the actions of his body.
B. What movement can there be in words ?
&. A great deal. Tully tells us, that the very ene-
mies of Gracchus could not forbear weeping when he
pronounced these words* ; Miserable man that I am !
Whither shall I turn myself ? Where can I go ? to the
Capitol ? it swims with my brother's blood. Shall I go
to my own house ? there to see my unhappy mother
dissolved in tears, and oppressed with sorrow ?' This is
moving language. But now if one were to say the same
things in a cold manner, they would lose all their force.
* Quid fuit in Graccho^ quern tu, Catule, melius rneniinisti, quod me puero
tantopere ferretur? quo me miser conferarn ? quo vertam? in Capiloliumne? at
fratris sanguine redundat- -An domum? matremne ut miseram lamenlantemque
videam, et abjectam ? quee sic ab illo ado, esse constabat oculis, voce, gestu, inim-
ici ut lachrymas tenere non possent. Haec eo dico pluribus, quod genus hoc to-
tum oratorea, qui sunt veritatis ipsius actores, reliquerunt; imiiatores, autem
yeritatis histriones, occup&verunt. Cic. de Orat. lib. iii. $ 56.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 91
B. Think you so ?
e/2. Let us try. 1 1 know not where to go, nor whith-
er I should turn myself, amidst my misfortunes. The
Capitol is the place where my brother's blood was shed :
and at home, I shall see my unhappy mother lamenting
her condition, with the utmost grief,' This is the same
thing that was said before : but what is become of that
force and vivacity we then perceived ? Where is that*
vehement manner, and abrupt language, which so justly
describes nature in the transports of grief? The man- <
ner of saying a thing shews us how it affects the mind ; I
and that is what most effectually touches the hearer. In/
such passages, one ought studiously to avoid all refined,
uncommon thoughts ; and even neglect connexion and or-
der : otherwise the passion described has no appearance
of truth, or nature, in it. Nothing is more shocking than
a passion expressed in beautiful figures, pompous lan-
guage, and well turned periods. On this head I must
recommend Longinusf to you, who quotes many sublime
examples from Demosthenes and others.
C. Besides the movements that attend an affecting,
vehement style, you mentioned others that flow from the
orator's gesture and action ; which I must entreat you
to explain.
A. I cannot pretend to give you a complete system
of rhetoric. It is a task I am not fit for. However 1
shall give you some remarks I have made on the point
of gesture, we find inTully and Quintillian,J that the ac-
tion of the Greeks and Romans was far more violent
* See Longinns, } xviii. t See Longinus, { xviii, xix, xx, xxi.
^ Femur ferire, quod Athenis primus fecisse creditur C/eon, et usitatum est,
et indignatos decet, et excitat auditorem. Idque in Callidio Cicero desiderat.
JVora/rons, inquit, percussa ? non femur ? pedum millet supplosio ? Quint,
92 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
than ours. They stamped on the ground ; and even
beat their forehead. Tully mentions an orator, who in
his pleading laid hold of his client, and tore open his
clothes to show the judges the wounds he had received
in the service of the republic. This was a vehement
kind of .action indeed ; but such as is reserved for extraor-
dinary occasions ; and doth not fall within the common
rules of gesture. I think it is not natural to be always
moving one's arm in talking ; that motion* is proper
enough when the orator is very vehement : but he ought
not to move his arm in order to appear vehement. Nay,
there are many things that ought to be pronounced calm-
ly, and without any motion.
B. Would you have a preacher, for instance, use no
gesture at all on some occasions ? that would look very
strange indeed.
A. I know that most people lay it down for a rule,
(or a custom at least,) that a preacher should be always
in motion, whatever the subject be that he treats of.
But it might be easily shown that our [French] preach*
ers usually have too much gesture, and sometimes too
little,
B. I wish you would state this matter clearly. For
I always believed, from the example of *** that there
are not above two or three motions of the hands to be
used in a whole sermon.
A. Let us then lay down some principle to argue
upon. Now of what use is the action of the bodyt in
* Bracbii moderata projectio remissis humeris, atque explicantibus sc ia
proferenda manu digitis, continues et decurrentes locos maxime decet. Ibid.
t Actio inquam in dicendo una dominatur ; sine hac sumrnus orator esse in
numero nullo potest ; mediocris, hac instructus' summos saepe superare. Huic
primas dedisse Demosthenes dicitur, quum rogaretur quid in dicendo esset pri-
jnum ; huic secundas ; huic tertiag. De Oral. lib. iii. $ 56. Est enim aclio
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 93
speaking? Is it not to express the sentiments and pas-
sions of the mind ?
B. I think so.
A. The motion of the body then should help to paint
the thoughts of the soul.
B. Yes.
A. And that painting ought to be exact and faithful.*
Every look and motion should in an easy, natural manner
represent the speaker's sentiments, and the nature of
the, things he says ; but so as to avoid all mean and the-
atrical gestures.
B. I think I understand your notion exactly. Let
me interrupt you then a little ; that you may see how
far I enter into the consequences that flow from the
principle you laid down. Yout would have an orator
use such a lively, natural, becoming action, as will help
to point out distinctly what his words alone could express
only in a flat and languid manner. So that you reckon
his very action a sort of painting4
quasi sermo corporis ; quo magis menti congrua esse debet atque in iis omnibus
quse sunt actionis, inest quaedam vis a natura data ; quare etiam hac iinperiti,
hac vulgus, hac denique barbari rnaxime commoventur iisdem enim omnium
animi motibus concitantur,'et eos iisdem notis, et in aliis agaoscunt, et in se ipsi
indicant. Ibid. 54.
* Omnis enim motus animi suum quendam a natura habet vultum et souum,
et gestum ; totumque corpus hominis, et ejus omnis vultus omnesque voces, ut
aervi in fidibus, ita sonant, ut a motu animi quoque sint pulsar Cicero.
t Gestus quantum habeat in oratore momenti, satis vel ex eo patet quod
pleraque etiam citra verba significat. Quippe non manus solum, sed nutus etiam
declarant nostram voluntatem ; et in mutis pro sermone sunt contra si gestus ac
vultus ab oratione dissentiat, tristia dicamus hilares, affirmemus aliqua renuentes,
non auctoritas modo verbis, sed etiam fides desit. Quint, lib. xi. c. 3.
J Our preachers stand stock still in the pulpit, and will not so much as move
a finger to set off the best sermons in the world. Our words flow from us in a
smooth, continued stream, without those strainings of the voice, motions of the
body, and majesty of the hand, which are so much celebrated in the orators of
94 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
Jl. Right. But we must farther conclude that to
paint well, we must imitate nature; and observe what
she does when she is left to herself; and is not constrain-
ed by art.
B. That is plain.
/?. Now, doth a man naturally use many gestures
when he says common things, without vehemence, or the
least mixture of any sort of passion ? , '
B. No.
A. On such common subjects then, we ought not to
use any action in public discourses ; or at least but little ;
for there we ought always to follow nature ;* nay, there
are some occasions where an orator might best express
his thoughts by silence. For, if, being full of some great
sentiment, he continued irnmoveable for. a moment ; this
surprising pause would keep the minds of the audience
in suspense, and express an emotion too big for words to
utter.
B. I doubt not but such unexpected pauses seasona-
bly employed, would be very significant ; and powerful-
Greece and Rome. We can talk of life and death in cold blood, and keep our
temper, in a discourse which turns upon every thing that is dear to us. Though
our zeal breaks out in the finest tropes and figures, it is not able to stir a limb
about us. I have heard it observed more than once, by those who have seen
Italy, that an untravelled Englishman cannot relish all the beauties of Italian
pictures, because the postures which are expressed in them are often such as
are peculiar to that country. One, who has not seen an Italian in the pulpit, will
not know what to make of that noble gesture in Raphael's picture of St. Paul,
preaching at Athens, where the apostle is represented as lifting up both his arms,
and pouring out the thunder of his rhetoric, amidst an audience of pagan philos-
ophers.
* Unum jam his adjiciendum est, cum prsecipue in actione spectetur decorum,
saspe aliud alios decere. Est enim latens qusedam in hoc ratio, et inenarrabills :
et ut vere hoc dictum est caput esse artis, decere quod facias quare norit se
quisque ; nee tanturn ex comrnunibus praeceptis, sed etiam ex natura sua capiat
consilium formandae actionis. Quint, lib. xi. c- 3.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOqUENCE. 95
ly affect the hearers. But, Sir, you seem to think that
one, who speaks in public, ought to use no other action
than what is proper for ordinary conversation.
A. You mistake me, Sir ; I think the sight of a great
assembly, and the importance of the subject an orator
treats of, ought to animate him far more than if he were
talking familiarly with his friends. But both in private
and in public, he ought always to act naturally. He
should use some action when his words are moving : but
when his expressions are quite calm and simple, there is
no occasion to move the body ; except it be in the gen-
tlest manner. Nothing appears more shocking and ab-
surd, than to see a man very warm and active, when he
is saying the driest, coldest things. Though he sweats
himself, he chills the blood of his audience. Some time
ago, I happened to fall asleep at a sermon, as you know
one is apt to do in the afternoon : (and indeed in for-
mer times, they preached but once a-day, after the gos-
pel in the morning service :) but I soon waked and found
the preacher in a very violent agitation, so that I fan-
cied, at first, that he was pressing some important point
of morality
B. What was the matter then ?
A. He was only giving notice, that on the Sunday
following he would preach upon repentance. I was ex-
tremely surprised to hear such an indifferent thing ut-
tered with so much vehemence ; and must have laughed
out, if the regard I had for the place, and some other
circumstances had not restrained me. The pronuncia-
tion of these declaimers is exactly like their gesture :
for, as their voice is a perpetual monotony ; so there is
an uniformity in their gesture,* that is no less nauseous
* In the delivering of sermons, a great composure of gesture and behaviour
96 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE;
and unnatural ; and equally contrary to the good effect
that one might expect from decent action.
B. You said that sometimes they have not action
enough.
A. We cannot wonder at that. For they do not dis-
cern the things that require "warmth and earnestness. *
They waste their spirits in saying the plainest^ things ;
and so are forced to utter those things faintly which ought
to be delivered with, a vehement action. I must own
indeed that the French are not very capable of this ve-
hemence : for, they are too airy, and do not conceive
things with sufficient strength ; and therefore they do
not speak with a proper energy. The Romans had a
wonderful talent this way, and the Greeks a greater.
f The eastern nations excelled in it ; and particularly the
Hebrews. Nothing can equal the strength and vivacity
of the figures they employed in their discourse ; and the
very actions they used to express their sentiments ; such
as putting ashes on their heads, and tearing their gar-
ments, and covering themselves with sackloth, under any
deep distress and sorrow of mind. I do not speak of
what the prophets did to give a more lively represen-
is necessary to give them weight and authority. Extremes are bad here, as ia
every thing else. Some affect a light and flippant behaviour ; ana others think
that wry faces, and a tone in the voice will set off the matter. Grave and com-
posed looks, and a natural, but distinct pronunciation, will always have the best
effects. The great rule which the masters of rhetoric press much, can never be
enough remembered, that to make a man speak well, and pronounce with a right
emphasis, he ought thoroughly to understand all that he says ; be fully persuaded
of it ; and bring himself to have those affections, which he desires to infuse into
others. He that is persuaded of the truth of what he says, and has a concern
about it in his mind, will pronounce with a natural vehemence, that is far more
lively than all the strains that art can lead him to. An orator, (if we hearken to
them) must be an honest man, and speak always on the side of truth ; and study
to feel all that he says ; and then he will speak it so as to make others feel it
likewise. Discourse of the pastoral care, chap. ix.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 97
tation of the things they foretold ; because such figura-
tive actions were the effect of divine inspiration. But
even in other cases, we find that those people under-
stood much better than we do, how to express then-
grief, and fear, and other passions, And hence, no doubt,
arose those surprising effects of elequence, which we
never experience now.
B. You approve then of many different gestures,
and various inflections of the voice ?*
A. It is that variety, which gives so much grace and
force to the action of an orator ; and made Demosthenes
far excel all others. The more easy and familiar that
the voice and action appear, when the speaker only nar-
rates, explains, or instructs, the more apt he will be to
surprise and move the audience in those parts of his dis-
course, where he grows suddenly vehement, and enforc-
es lofty, affecting sentiments, by a suitable energy of
voice, and action. This due pronunciation! is a kind of
* In omni voce, eat quiddam medium ; sed suum cuique ; bine gradatim
adscendere vocem utile, et suave est ; (nam a principle clamare agreste quid-
dam est ;) et illud idem ad formandum est vccem salutare ; deinde est quiddam
contentius extremum est item contra quiddam in remissione gravissimuni, quo-
que tamquam sonorum gradibus descenditur. Haec varietas, et hie per .omnes
sonos vocis cursus, et ss tuebitur, et actioni afferet suavitatem.
Cic. de Oral. lib. iii. j 61.
t Ornata est pronuntiatio, cui suffragatur vox facilis, magna, beata, flexibi-
lis, firma, dulcis, durabilis, clara pura, secana sera, auribus sedens. Est enim
quondam ad auditum accommodata, non magnitudine sed proprietate, ad hoc
relut tractabilis ; utique habens omnes in se qui desiderantur sonos intentiones-
que, et toto ut aiunt organo instructa illud vero maximum, quod secundum
ratianem rerum de quibus dicimus, animorumque habitus, conformanda vox est,
ne ab oratione discordet. Vitemus igitur illam quae Greece povoTovtct- vocatur,
una quasdam spiritus ac soni intentio ; non solum ne dicamus clamose, quod in-
sanum est ; aut intra loquendi modum, quod motu caret ; aut summisso mur-
mure, quo etiam debilitatur omnis intentio ; sed ut in iisdem partibus, iisdemque
affectibus, sint tamen qusdam non ita magnse vocis declinaliones^Tout aut ver-
borum dignitas, ant sententiarum natura, aut depositio, aut inceptio,'aut transi-
13
98 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
music ; whose beauty consists in the variety of proper
tones and inflections of the voice, which ought to rise or
fall with a just and easy cadence, according to the nature
of the things we express. It gives a light as well as a
grace to language ; and is the very life and spirit of dis-
course.
B. According to your notions of elocution, it is an art ,
unknown to our greatest orators. The preacher that
you and I heard, ahout a fortnight ago, did not observe-
your rule : nor, even seem to endeavour it. Except the
first thirty words of his sermon, he spake always in the
same tone : and the only sign I could perceive of his be-
ing more vehement in some parts of his discourse, than
in others, was, that when he seemed earnest, he spoke
faster than at other times.
/#. To me, Sir, his voice seemed to have two tones 5
though they were well adapted to his words. You have
observed justly enough that he did not follow the rules
of pronunciation ; and I believe he did not perceive the
need of them. His voice is naturally melodious: and
though it be ill managed, it is however pleasing enough.
But you see plainly that it does not make those strong,
affecting impressions on the mind that it would produce,
if it had such various inflections as are proper to express
the speaker's sentiments. Such preachers are like fine
clocks, that give a clear, full, soft, agreeable sound ; but
after all they are clocks only, of no significancy : and hav-
ing no variety of notes, they are incapable of harmony or
eloquence.
B. But were there not many graces in the rapidity
of his discourse ?
tus postulabit ; ut qui singulis pinxerunt coloribus, alia tamen eminentiora, alia
seductiora fecerunt ; sine quo ne membris quidera suas lineas dediasent.
Qwin/. lib. xi. c. 3.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 99
A. Yes ; and I grant that in some affecting, lively
passages, one ought to speak faster than usual. But it
is a great fault to speak with so much precipitation that
one cannot stop himself nor be distinctly understood.
The voice and action bear some resemblance to verse.
Sometimes we must use such a slow, and grave measure
as is fit to describe things of that character : and some-
times a short, impetuous one, to express what is quick
and ardent. To use always the same degree of action,
and the same tone of voice, is like prescribing one rem-
edy for all distempers. But we ought to excuse the uni-
formity of that preacher's voice and action. For, be-
sides his possessing many excellent qualities, the fault we
complain of, is the natural effect of his style. We have
already agreed that the modulation of the voice should
be exactly suited to the words. Now his style is even,
and uniform, without the least variety. On the one hand,
it is not familiar, insinuating, and popular; and on the
other, it has nothing in it that is lively, figurative, and
sublime : but it consists of a constant flow of words, that
press one after the other ; containing a close and well-
connected chain of reasoning, on clear ideas. In a word,
he is a man that talks good sense very correctly. Nay
we must acknowledge that he has done great service to
the pulpit : he has rescued it from the servitude of vain
declaimers ; and filled it himself with much strength and
dignity. He is very capable of convincing people : but
I know few preachers who persuade and move them less
than he doth. If you observe carefully, you will even
find that his way of preaching is not very instructive,
for, besides his not having a familiar, engaging, pathetic
manner of talking (as I observed before,) his discourse
100 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
does not in the least strike the imagination,* but is ad-
dressed to the understanding only. It is a thread of
reasoning that cannot be comprehended without the clos-
est attention. And seeing there are but few hearers ca-
pable of such a constant application of mind, they re-
tain little or nothing of his discourse. It is like a tor-
rent that hurries along at once, and leaves its channel
dry. In order to make a lasting impression on people's
minds, we must support their attention, by moving their
passions : for, dry instructions can have but little influ-
ence. But the thing that I reckon least natural in this
preacher, is the continual motion he gives his arms ;
while there is nothing figurative, nor moving in his words.
The action used in ordinary conversation, would suit his
style best : or his impetuous gesture would require a
style full of sallies and vehemence ; and even then he
behoved to manage his warmth better, and render it less
uniform. In fine, I think he is a great man ; but not an
orator. -A country preacher, who can alarm his hearers,
and draw tears from them, answers the" end of elo-
quence better than he.
B. But how shall we know the particular gestures,
and the inflections of voice that are agreeable to nature.
* The senses and the imagination are fruitful and inexhaustible sources of
mistakes and delusion ; but the understanding or mind acting by itself, is not so
subject to error ; we cannot always speak so as to affect the senses and imaging
ation of others ; nor ought we always to endeavour it. When a subject is 06-
slracted, we can seldom render it sensible (or apt to strike the imagination,)
without making it obscure ; it is enough if it be made intelligible. Nothing can
be more unjust than the usual complaints of those, who would know every thing ;
and yet will not apply themselves to any thing. They take it amiss when we
require their attention ; and expect that we should always strike their fancy, and
continually please their senses, and their passions. But it is not in our power to
gratify them. The authors of romances and comedies are obliged thus to please
and amuse them ; but as for us, it is enough if we can instruct those who are
truly attentive. P. Malbranche's recherche de la veriie, liv. ijj. c. j.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 101
A. I told you before that the whole art of good or-
ators consists in observing what nature does when un-
constrained. You ought not to imitate those haranguers
who choose always to declaim ; but will never talk to
their hearers. On the contrary, you should address
yourself to an audience in such a modest, respectful, en-
gaging manner, that each of them shall think you are
speaking to him in particular. And this is the use and
advantage of natural, familiar, insinuating tones of voice.
They ought always to be grave and becoming : and even
strong and pathetic, when the subject requires it. But
you must not fancy, that you can express the passions by
the mere strength of voice ; like those noisy speakers,
who by bawling and tossing themselves about, stun their
hearers, instead of affecting them. If we would succeed
in painting, and raising the passions, we must know ex-
actly what movements they inspire. For instance, ob-
serve what is the posture, and what the voice of one,
whose heart is pierced with sorrow, or surprised at the
sight of an astonishing object ; remark the natural ac-
tion of the eyes ; what the hands do ; and what the
whole body. On such occasions nature appears ; and
you need only follow it ; if you must employ art,* conceal
it so well under an exact imitation, that it may pass for
nature itself. But to speak the truth, orators in such
cases are like poets, who write elegies or other passion-
ate verses ; they must feel the passion they describe,f
* TOTS yap 7i tfEftvyi tefaiog, rivix? av fyvffis sivai
n $' ecu tyvGi$ BTtitv^c^ orav ^avBavovaa 7tepi%
LONGINUS, xxii.
t Ut ridentibus arrident, ita flentibus adsunt
Human! vultus. Si vis me flere, doleiidum est
Primuua ipsi tibi
: male si mandata loqueris,
102 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
else they can never paint it well. The greatest art im-
aginable can never speak like true passion,* and undis-
guised nature. So that you will always be but an im-
perfect orator, if you be not thoroughly moved with
those sentiments that you paint, and would infuse into
others. Nor do I say this from a pious motive ; I speak
now only as an orator.f
B. The case, I think, is abundantly plain ; but you
spoke to us of the eyes ; have they their rhetoric too ?
Jl. Yes ; if you will believe Tully,f and other an-
cient orators. Nothing is more intelligible than the as-
pect ; it expresses every passion of the soul. And in
Aut dormilabo, aut ridebo. Tristia mcestum
Vultum verba decent ; iratum plena minarum.
Format cnim natura prius nos intus ad omnem
For-tunarum babitum ; juvat, aut impellit ad iram,
Aut ad humum moerore gravi deducit, et angit ;
Post eflert animi motus interprete lingua.
Hor. de Ar. Po.
* app6>v yap afyopitiaipviv av (5g ovfisv ovtog 05 to
yevvatov 7taQo$ svBa %$YI {lEyafc/iyopov, wffTiep into ^a-wag
$> xau rtvsvpatos svQovGiadfixov exrtvsov, xai olovet
tovg hoyovs. LONGINUS, viii.
t Neque fieri potest, ut doleat is qui audit, ut oderit, ut invideat, ut perti-
mescat aliquid, nisi omnes ii motus quos orator adhibere volet judici, in ipso
oratore impress!, atque inusti videbuntur ut enim nulla materies tarn facilis ad
exardescendum est, qua? nisi admoto igni ignem concipere possit ; sic nulla mens
eat tarn ad comprehendendam vim oratoris parata, quae possit incendi, nisi in-
flammatus ipse ad earn et ardens accesseris. Cic. de Oral. lib. ii. J 45.
^ Sed in ore sunt omnia. In eo autem ipso dominatus est omnis oculorum
animi enim est omnis actio ; et imago animi vultus est, indices oculi. Nam haec
est una pars corporis quae quot animi motus sunt, tot significationes, et commu-
tationes possit efficere oculi sunt quorum turn intentione, turn remissione, turn
coujectu, turn hilaritate motus animorum significemus apte cum genere ipso ora-
tionis ; est enim aclio quasi sermo corporis ; quo magis menti congruens esse
debet. Quare in hac nostra actione secundum vocem vnltus valet ; is autem
oculis gubernatur. Cic. de Oral. lib. iii. $ 59.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 103
the aspect, the eyes are most active and significant.
One well-timed look will pierce to the bottom of the
heart.*
B. The preacher, we were speaking of, has usually
his eyes shut. When we observe him near, it is very
shocking.!
A. It is disagreeable because we perceive that he
wants one of the chief things that ought to enliven his
discourse.
B. But why does he so ?
Jl. He makes haste to pronounce his words ; and
shuts his eyes, because it helps his labouring memory.
B. I observed indeed that it was very much burden-
* Smiles and sadness display themselves partly at the mouth ; the former by
raising, the latter by depressing, the corners of it ; and yet we might in many
cases mistake a laughing for a weeping countenance, if we did not see the eye.
Indeed this little organ, whether sparkling with joy, or melting in sorrow; wheth-
er gleaming with indignation, or languishing v in tenderness; whether glowing with
the steady light of deliberate valour, or sending forth emanations of good will
and gratitude, is one of the most interesting objects in the whole visible universe.
There is more in it than shape, motion, and colour ;. there is thought and pas-
sion ; there is life and soul ; there is reason and speech. Seattle.
i But the face is the epitome of the whole man, and the eyes are as it were
the epitome of the face. No part of the body, besides the face, is capable of as
many changes as there are different emotions in the mind, and of expressing
them all by those changes. As the countenance admits of so great variety, it
requires also great judgment to govern it. Not that the form of the face is to
be shifted on every occasion, lest it turn to farce and buffoonery ; but it is cer-
tain that the eyes have a wonderful power of marking the emotions of the mind ;
sometimes by a steadfast look, sometimes by a careless one now by a sudden
regard, then by a joyful sparkling, as the sense of the word is diversified ; for
action is, as it were, the speech of the features and limbs, and must therefore
conform itself always to the sentiments of the soul. And it may be observed,
that in all which relates to the gesture, there is a wonderful force implanted by
nature ; since the vulgar, the unskilful, and even the most barbarous, are chief-
ly affected by this. None are moved by the sound of words but those who un-
derstand the language ; and the sense of many things is lost upon men of a dull
apprehension ; but action is a kind of universal tongue ; all men are subject to
the same passions, and consequently know the same marks of them in others, bj
which they themselves express them. Spectator.
104 DIALOGUES CONCERNIGG ELOQUENCE.
ed ; sometimes he repeated several words to find out
the thread of his discourse. Such repetitions make one
look like a careless school-boy that has forgot his lesson.
They are very disagreeable ; and would not be easily
excused in a preacher of less note.
Jl. It is not so much the preacher's fault as the de-
fect of the method he follows, after many others. So
long as men preach by heart, and often, they will be apt
to fall into this perplexity.
B. How do you mean ? Would you have us not
preach by heart ? Without doing so, one could not make
an exact, pithy discourse.
Jl. I am not against a preacher's getting some par-
ticular sermons by heart. They may always have time
enough to prepare themselves for extraordinary occa-
sions. And they might even acquit themselves hand-
somely without such great preparation.
B. How? This seems incredible.
A. If I be mistaken. I shall readily own it. Let us
only examine the point without prepossession. What
is the chief aim of an orator ? Is it not to persuade ?
And in order to this, ought he not to affect his hearers,
by moving their passions ?
j3. I grant it.
Jl. The most lively and moving way of preaching is
therefore the best.
B. True ; what do you conclude from that ?
A. Which of two orators will have the most power-
ful and affecting manner ; he who learns his discourse
by heart ; or he who speaks without reciting word for
word what he had studied ?
B. He, I think, who has got his discourse by heart.
Jl. Have patience ; and let us state the question right
X>IALOGUE9 CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 105
On the one hand, I suppose a man prepares his discourse
exactly, and learns it by heart to the least syllable. On
the other hand, I suppose another person, who fills his
mind with the subject he is to talk of; who speaks with
great ease ; (for you would not have any body* attempt
to speak in public, without having proper talents for
it:) in short, a man who has attentively considered all
the principles, and parts of the subject he is to handle ;
and has a comprehensive view of them in all their ex-
tent ; who has reduced his thoughts into a proper meth-
od ; and prepared the strongest expressions to explain
and enforce them in a sensible manner ; who ranges all
his arguments, and has a sufficient number of affecting
figures ; such a man certainly knows every thing that
he ought to say ; and the order in which the whole
should be placed ;t to succeed therefore in his delive-
ry, he wants nothing but those common expressions that
must make the bulk of his discourse. But do you be-
lieve now that such a person would have any difficulty
in finding easy, familiar expressions ?
-Ego nee studium sine drvite vena,
Nee rude quid prosit video ingenium Hor. de A . P.
*
t He, then, that would prepare himself to be a preacher in this method, must
accustom himself to talk freely to himself to let his thoughts flow from him;
especially when he feels an edge and heat upon his mind ; for then happy ex-
pressions will come in his mouth he must also be writing essays Upon all sorts,
of subjects ; for by writing he will bring himself to a correctness both in thinking
and in speaking ; and thus by a hard practice for two or three years, a man may
render himself such a master in this way, that he can never be surprised ; nor
will new thoughts ever dry up upon him. He must talk over himself the whole
body of divinity ; and accustom himself to explain, and prove; to clear objec-
tions ; and to apply evey part of it to some practical use and if in these his
meditations, happy thoughts, and noble, tender expressions, do at any time ofier
themselves, he must not lose them ; but write them down by a very few years 1
practice of two or three such soliloquies a day, chiefly in the morning, when
the head is clearest, and the spirits are liveliest, a man will contract a great
easiness, both in thinking and speaking.
Rp Burners disc, on the pastoral care, p. 210, 211^
14
106 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
> B. He could not find such just and handsome ones
as he might have hit on, if he had sought them leisurely
in his closet.
Ji. I own that. But according to you, he would lose
only a few ornaments ; and you know how to rate that
loss, according to the principles we laid down before.
On the other side, what advantage must he not have in
the freedom and force of his action ; which is the main
thing. Supposing that he has applied himself much to
composing, (as Cicero requires of an orator,*) that he
has read all the hest models ; and has a natural or ac-
quired easiness of style and speech ; that he has abun-
dance of solid knowledge and learning ; that he under-
stands his subject perfectly well; and has ^ranged all
the parts and proofs of it in his head : in such a case
we must conclude that- he will speak with force, and or-
der, and readiness/!" His periods perhaps will not sooth
the ear so much as the others ; and for that reason he
must be the better orator. His transitions may not be
so fine ; it is no great matter ; though these he might
have prepared without getting them by heart ; besides,
these little omissions were .common to the most eloquent
orators among the ancients. They thought such negli-
gence was very natural ; and ought even to be imitated,
to avoid the appearance of too great preparation.
What then could our orator want ? He might make
* Caput autem est, quod (ut vere dicam) minime facimus, (est enim magni
laboris, quern plerique fugimus) quam plurimum scribere stilus optimus, et
praestantissimus dicendi effector, ac magister ; neque injuria ; nam si subitam et
fortuitam orationem, commentatio, et cogitatio facile vincit ; hanc ipsam pro-
fecto assidua ac diligens scriptura superabit. De Oral. lib. i. } 33.
t cui lecta potenter erit res,
Nee facundia deserit hunc, nee lucidus ordo.
Verbaque provisam rera non invita sequentur.
Hor. de Art. Poel.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 107
some little repetition ; but that too must have its use.
Not only will the judicious hearer take a pleasure in ob-
serving nature here, which leads one often to resume
whatever view of the subject strikes strongest upon the
mind ; but likewise this repetition imprints the truth more
deeply ; which is the best manner of instruction. At the
worst, one might find in his discourse some inaccuracy
of construction, some obsolete word that has been censur-
ed by the academy : something that is irregular ; or, if
you will, some weak or misapplied expression, that he
may happen to drop in the warmth of action. But sure-
ly they must have narrow souls, who can think such little
escapes worth any one's notice. There is abundance of
these to be met with in the most excellent originals.*
The greatest orators among the ancients neglected them :
and if our views. were as noble as theirs, we should not so
much regard those trifles,t which can amuse none but
such as are not able to discern and pursue what is truly
great. Excuse my freedom, Sir ; if I did not think you
had a genius very different from these little, cavilling
xau, Q[ivipov> xai <twv a^ov offot fiEyiGtoi, XOLL nxtGra
rtfaiGiiaoiv ape%p[&evog> o[ia$ <$e ov% a^ap<n^ar
avta, ixovGia, xa/lov, *j Ttapopa^atfa St afiefatav, SLXYJ nov
LOWGINUS,
t Suat delicta tamen, quibus ignovisse velimua ;
Nam neque chorda sonum reddit quern vult manus et mens ;
Poscentique gravem persaepe remittit acutum ;
Nee semper feriet quodcunque minabitur arcus.
Verum ubi plura nifent in carmine, non ego paucis
Ofieudar maculis, quas aut incuria fudit,
Aut huraana parum cavit natura
Hor. de Art. Poet.
104 DIALOGUES COirCERXIGG ELOQUENCE.
ed : sometimes be repealed several words to find out
the thread of his discourse. Such repetitions make one
look like a careless school-boy that has forgot his lesson.
They are very disagreeable ; and would not be easily
excused in a preacher of less note.
?. It is not so much the preacher's fault as the de-
tect of the method he follows, after many others. So
long as men preach by heart, and often, they will be apt
to fall into this perplexity.
B. How do you mean ? Would you have us not
preach by heart ? Without doing so, one could not make
an exact, pithy discourse.
j3. I am not against a preacher's getting some par-
ticular sermons by heart. They may always have time
enough to prepare themselves for extraordinary occa-
sions. And they might even acquit themselves hand-
somely without such great preparation.
B. How? This seems incredible.
Jl. If I be mistaken. I shall readily own it. Let us
only examine the point without prepossession. What
is the chief aim of an orator ? Is it not to persuade ?
And in order to this, ought lie not to affect his hearers,
by moving their passions ?
B. I grant it.
A. The most lively and moving way of preaching is
therefore the best.
B. True ; what do you conclude from that ?
Ji. Which of two orators will have the most power-
ful and affecting manner j he who learns his discourse
by heart ; or he who speaks without reciting word for
word what he had studied ?
B. He, I think, who has got his discourse by heart.
A. Have patience j and let us state the question right.
1>IALOGUE3 CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 105
On the one hand, I suppose a man prepares his discourse
exactly, and learns it by heart to the least syllable. On
the other hand, I suppose another person, who fills his
mind with the subject he is to talk of; who speaks with
great ease ; (for you would not have any body* attempt
to speak in public, without haying proper talents for
it:) in short, a man who has attentively considered all
the principles, and parts of the subject he is to handle ;
and has a comprehensive view of them in all their ex*
tent ; who has reduced his thoughts into a proper meth-
od ; and prepared the strongest expressions to explain
and enforce them in a sensible r manner ; who ranges all
his arguments, and has a sufficient number of affecting
figures ; such a man certainly knows every thing that
he ought to say; and the order in which the whole
should be placed ;t to succeed therefore in his delive-
ry, he wants nothing but those common expressions that
must make the bulk of his discourse. But do you be-
lieve now that such a person would have any difficulty
in finding easy, familiar expressions ?
* Ego nee studium sine drvite vena,
Nee rude quid prosit video ingenium Hor. de A . P.
t He, then, that would prepare himself to be a preacher in this method, must
accustom himself to talk freely to himselQ to let his thoughts flow from him;
especially when he feels an edge and heat upon his mind ; for then happy ex-
pressions will come in h.is mouth he must also be writing essays upon all sorts,
of subjects ; for by writing he will bring himself to a correctness both in thinking
and in speaking ; and thus by a hard practice for two or three years, a man may-
render himself such a master in this way, that he can never be surprised ; noi-
will new thoughts ever dry up upon him. He must talk over himself the whole
body of divinity ; and accustom himself to explain, and prove; to clear objec-
tions ; and to apply evey part of it to some practical use and if in these his
meditations, happy thoughts, and noble, tender expressions, do at any time offer
themselves, he must not lose them ; but write them down by a very few years'
practice of two or three such soliloquies a day, chiefly in the morning, when
the head is clearest, and the spirits are liveliest, a man "will contract a great
easiness, both in thinking and speaking.
Bp t Burners disc, on the pastoral care, p. 210, 211,
14
106 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
> B. He could not find such just and handsome ones
as he might have hit on, if he had sought them leisurely
in his closet.
A. I own that. But according to you, he would lose
only a few ornaments ; and you know how to rate that
loss, according to the principles we laid down before.
On the other side, what advantage must he not have in
the freedom and force of his action ; which is the main
thing. Supposing that he has applied himself much to
composing, (as Cicero requires of an orator,*) that he
has read all the best models ; and has a natural or ac-
quired easiness of style and speech ; that he has abun-
dance of solid knowledge and learning ; that he under-
stands his subject perfectly well; and has ^ranged all
the parts and proofs of it in his head : in such a case
we must conclude that, he will speak with force, and or-
der, and readiness.f His periods perhaps will not sooth
the ear so much as the others ; and for that reason he
must be the better orator. His transitions may not be
so fine ; it is no great matter ; though these he might
have prepared without getting them by heart ; besides,
these little omissions were -common to the most eloquent
orators among the ancients. They thought such negli-
gence was very natural ; and ought even to be imitated,
to avoid the appearance of too great preparation.
What then could our orator want ? He might make
* Caput autem est, quod (ut vere dicam) minime facimus, (est enim magni
laboris, quern plerique fugimus) quam plurimum scribere stilus optimus, et
prsestantissimus dicendi effector, ac raagister ; neque injuria ; nam si subitam et
fortuitam orationem, commentatio, et cogitatio facile vincit ; hanc ipsam pro-
fecto assidua ac diligens scriptura superabit. De Oral. lib. i. } 33-
t cui lecta potenter erit res,
Nee facundia deserit hunc, nee lucidus ordo.
Vevbaque provisam rem non invita sequentur.
Hor. de Art, Poet.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 107
some little repetition ; but that too must have its use.
Not onlj will the judicious hearer take a pleasure in ob-
serving nature here, which leads one often to resume
whatever view of the subject strikes strongest upon the
mind ; but likewise this repetition imprints the truth more
deeply ; which is the best manner of instruction. At the
worst, one might find in his discourse some inaccuracy
of construction, some obsolete word that has been censur-
ed by the academy : something that is irregular ; or, if
you will, some weak or misapplied expression, that he
may happen to drop in the warmth of action. But sure-
ly they must have narrow souls, who can think such little
escapes worth any one's notice. There is abundance of
these to be met with in the most excellent originals.*
The greatest orators among the ancients neglected them :
and if our views. were as noble as theirs, we should not so
much regard those trifles,t which can amuse none but
such as are not able to discern and pursue what is truly
great. Excuse my freedom, Sir ; if I did not think you
had a genius very different from these little, cavilling
* Hapa,te6e[ievo$ 5' ovx oXiya xai awtog a
xou QfiYipov, xai fav a/Maw QGQI [isyLGtoi, xcu YIXIGTO,
avra, sxovGia xafaw, YI Ttapopa^aira & apEfaiav, sixvi nov
t Sunt delicta tamen, quibus igaovisse velimus ;
Nam neque chorda sonum reddit quern vult manus et mena ;
Foscentique gravem persaspe remittit acutum ;
Nee semper feriet quodcunque minabitur arcus.
Verum ubi plura nitent in carmine, non ego paucis
Ofieudar maculis, quas aut incuria fudit,
Aut humana parum cavit natura
Hor. de Art. Poel.
108 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
critics I condemn, I should speak of them with greater
caution.
B. You may always speak your mind, Sir, without
any reserve on my account. Be pleased therefore to go
on with your comparison.
A. Consider then, in the next place, the advantages
that a preacher must have who does not get his sermon
by heart. He is entirely master of himself ; he speaks
in an easy, unaffected way; and not like a formal declaim-
er. Things flow then from their proper source. If he
has a natural talent for eloquence, liis language must be
lively and moving ; even the warmth that animates him,*
must lead him to such pertinent expressions and figures,
as he could not have found out by study.
B. Why ? Surely a man may enliven his fancy, and
compose very sprightly discourses in his closet.
j2. I own that ; but a just elocution and gesture must
still give them a greater life and spirit. Besides, what
one says in the ardour of action is far more natural and
affecting ; it has a negligent air ; and discovers none of
that art, which is visible in all elaborate composures.
* But the rule I have observed last, is the most necessary of all ; and without
jt all the rest will never do the business ; it is this ; that a man must have in
himself a deep sense of the truth and power of religion ; he must have a life and
flame in his thoughts with relatiop to these subjects ; he must have felt himself
those things which he intends to explain and recommend to others. He must
observe narrowly the motions of his own mind ; that so he may have a Hvely
heat in himself when he speaks of them ; and that he may speak in so sensible a
manner, that it may be almost felt that he speaks from his heart. There is an
authority in the simplest things that can be said, when they carry visible charac-
ters of genuineness in them. Now if a man can carry on this method, and by
much meditation and prayer, draw down divine influences, which are always to
be expected when a man puts himself in the way of them, and prepares himself
for them ; he will always feel that itshilefie is musing afire is kindled within him ;
and then he will speak with authority, and without constraint ; his thoughts will
be true, apd his expressions free and easy.
Discourse of the pastoral care, p. Ill, 112,
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 109
We may add farther, that a skilful, experienced orator,
adapts things to the capacity of his hearers ;* and varies
his discourse, according to the impression he sees it makes
upon their minds. For, he easily perceives whether
they understand him, or not ; and whether he gains their
attention, and moves their hearts ; and if it be needful,
he resumes the same things in a different manner, and
sets them in another light ; he clothes them in more fa-
miliar images, and comparisons ; or he goes back to the
plainest principles, from which he gradually deduces the
truths he would enforce ; or he endeavours to cure those
passions, that hinder the truth from making a due im-
pression. This is the true art of instruction and persua-
sion ; and without this address and presence of mind, we
can only make roving and fruitless declamations. Ob-
serve now how far the orator, who gets every thing by
heart, falls short of the other's success. If we suppose
then a man to preach, who depends entirely on his mem-
ory, and dares not pronounce a word different from his
lesson ; his style will be very exact ; but, as Dionysius
Halicarnassius observes of Isocrates, his composition
must please more when it is read, than when it is pro-
nounced. Besides, let him take what pains he will, the
inflexions of his voice will be too uniform ; and always a
little constrained. He is not like a man that speaks to
an audience ; but like a rhetorician, who recites or de-
claims. His action must be awkward and forced ; by
fixing his eyes too much, he shows how much his memory
labours in his delivery ; and he is afraid to give way to
* Erit igitur bsec facultas in eo quern volumus esse eloquentem, ut definire rem
possit ; neque id facial tarn presse et anguste, quam in illis eruditissimis dispu-
tationibus fieri solet, sed cum explanatius; turn etiam uberius, et ad commune
udicitim, popularemque inlelligentiam accommodatius.
Cic. Orat. 33.
110 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
an unusual emotion, lest he should lose the thread of his
discourse. Now the hearer perceiving such an undis-
guised art, is so far from being touched and captivated,
? xas he ought to be, that he observes the speaker's artifice
with coldness and neglect.
B. But did not the ancient orators do what you con-
demn ?
A. I believe not.
B. What ! do you think that Demosthenes and Tul-
ly did not learn by heart those finished orations they
have left us ?
Jl. We know very well that they composed and
wrote their harangues, before they spake in public ; but
we have several reasons to believe that they did not get
them by heart, word for Avord. Even the orations of
Demosthenes, as we have them, shew rather the sublim-
ity and vehemence of a great genius, that was accustom-
ed to speak powerfully of public affairs ; than the accu-
racy and politeness of an author. As for Cicero, in sev-
eral places of his harangues, we find things spoken on
sudden emergencies, that he could not possibly have fore-
seen. And if we take his opinion of this matter .5* he
thinks an orator ought to have a great memory ; and he
even speaks of an artificial kind of memory as an useful
invention ; but all he says on this point does not imply
that we ought to learn every word by heart. On the
contrary, he seems only to require, that we should range
all the parts of a discourse exactly in our memory, and
* Sed verborum memoria, quae minus eat nobis necessaria^ majore imaginum
vavietate distinguitur , multa enira sunt verba. Quae quasi articuli connectunt
membra orationis, quae formari similitudine nulla possunt ; eorum fingendae nobis
sunt imagines, quibus semper utamur. Rerum memoria, propria est oratoris ;
earn singulis personis bene positis notare possumus, ut sentenlias imaginibus, or-
dincm locis comprchendamus. De Oral. lib. ii. $ 88.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. Ill
prepare the figures and chief expressions we are to use 5
so as to be ready to add, off-hand, whatever may occa-
sionally be suggested from a yiew of the audience, or un-
expected accidents. And it is for this reason, that he re-
quires so much application and presence of mind in an
orator.
B. You must allow me to tell you, Sir, that all this
does not convince me ; for I cannot believe that one can
speak so very well, without. having prepared and adjust-
ed all his expressions.
C. The reason why it is so hard to persuade you
in this case, is, because you judge of the matter by com-
mon experience. If they, who get their sermons by heart,
were to preach without that preparation, it is likely they
would succeed but very ill ; nor am I surprised at it ;
for, they are not accustomed to follow nature : they have
studied only to compose their sermons : and that too
with affectation. They have never once thought of
speaking in a noble, strong, and natural manner.* Indeed
* This leads me to consider the difference that is between the reading, and the ^
speaking of sermons. Reading is peculiar to this nation ; and is endured in no
other. It has indeed made our sermons more exact ; and so has produced to us
many volumes of the best that are extant. But after all, though some few read
so happily, pronounce so truly, and enter so entirely into those affections which
they recommend ; that in them, we see both the correctness of reading, and the
seriousness of speaking sermons ; yet every one is not so happy. Some by hang-
ing their head perpetually over- their notes, by blundering as they read ; and by
a cursory running over them, do so lessen the matter of their sermons, that as
they are generally read with very little life or affection, so they are heard with
as little regard, or esteem. Those who read, ought certainly to be at a little
more pains, than (for the most part) they are to read true ; to pronounce with
an emphasis ; to raise their head, and to direct their eyes to their hearers ; and
if they practised more, alone, the just way of reading, they might deliver their
sermons with much more advantage. Man is a low sort of creature ; he does
not (nay, the greater part cannot) consider things in themselves, without those
little seasonings that must recommend them to their affections. Besides, the peo- \
pie (who are too apt to censure the clergy) are easily carried into an obvious re- |
flection on reading, that it is an effect of lazines?. Discourse of the
care, cJi. ix.
112 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
the greatest part of preachers have not a sufficient fund
of solid knowledge to depend on, and are therefore afraid
to trust themselves, without the usual preparation. The
method of getting sermons by heart, qualifies many, who
have but very scanty and superficial parts, to make a
tolerable figure in the pulpit ; seeing they need only lay
together a certain number of passages and remarks : and
however little genius or assistance a man has, he mav,
with time and application, be able to work up and polish
his matter into some form. But to preach with judg- .
ment and strength, requires an attentive meditation upon
the first principles of religion; an exact knowledge of
morality ; an insight into antiquity ; strength of reason-
ing ; and suitable action. Is not this, Sir, what you re-
quire in an orator, who does not learn his discourse by
heart ?*
* It may be proper to present the reader, in one view, the opinion of several
other distinguished authors, on the use of written discourses in the pulpit. " I
knew a clergyman of some distinction, who appeared to deliver his sermon without
looking into his notes, which, when I complemented him upon, he assured ine he
could not repeat six lines; but his method was to write the whole sermon in a large^
plain hand, with all the forms of margin, paragraph, marked page, and the like ;
then on Sunday morning he took care to run it over five or six times, which he
could do in an hour ; and when he delivered it, by pretending to turn his face from
one side to the other, he would (in his own expression) pick up the lines, and
cheat his people by making them believe he had it all by heart. He farther
added, that whenever he happened by neglect to omit any of these circumstanc-.
es, the vogue of the parish was, ' our doctor gave us but an indifferent sermon
to- day.' Now among us, many clergymen act so directly contrary to this me-
thod, that from a habit of saving time and paper, which they acquired at the
university, they write in so diminutive a manner, with such frequent blots and
interlineations, that they are hardly able to go on without perpetual hesitations,
or extemporary expletives ; and 1 desire to know what can be more inexcusable,
than to see a divine and a scholar at a loss in reading his own compositions,
which it is supposed he has been preparing with much pains and thought for the
instruction of his people. The want of a little more care in this article is
the cause of much ungraceful behaviour. You will observe some clergymen
with their heads held down from the beginning to the end, within an inch of the
cushion, to read what is hardly legible ; which, beside the untoward manner,
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 113
A. You have explained my thoughts exactly. Only
it may not be improper to add, that though a man should
hinders them from making the best advantage of their voice ; others again have
a trick of popping up and down every moment from their paper to the audience.
like an idle school boy on a repetition day.
Let me entreat you therefore to add one half crown a year to the article of
paper ; to transcribe your sermons in as large and plain a manner as you can ;
and either make no interlineations, or change the whole leaf; for we, your hear-
ers, would rather you should be less correct, than perpetually stammering, which
I take to be one of the worst solecisms in rhetoric. And lastly, read your ser-
mon once or twice a day for a few days before you preach it; to which you
will probably answer some years hence, ' that it was but just finished Avhen the
last bell rang to church ;' and I shall readily believe, but not excuse you."
SwifPs Letter to a Young Clergyman.
" That a discourse well spoken hath a stronger effect than one well read,
will hardly bear a question. From this manifest truth I very early concluded,
and was long of the opinion, that the way of reading sermons should be absolutely
banished from the pulpit. But from farther experience, I am now disposed to
suspect, that this conclusion was rather hasty. As to my personal experience I
shall frankly tell you, what I know to be fact. I have tried both ways ; I con-
tinued long in the practice of repeating, and was even thought (if people did not
very much deceive me) to succeed in it ; but I am absolutely certain, that I can
give more energy, and preserve the attention of the hearers better, to what I
read than ever it was in my power to do to what I repeated. Nor is it any won-
der. There are difficulties to be surmounted in the latter case, which have no
place at all in the former. The talents in other respects are the same, that fit
one to excel in either way. Now as it will, I believe, be admitted by every
body who reflects, that a discourse well read is much better than one ill spoken,
I should not think it prudent to establish any general rule, which would probably
make bad speakers of many, who might otherwise have proved good readers.
There is something in charging one's memory with a long chain of words and
syllables, and this is one of the difficulties 1 hinted at, and then running on, as it
were, mechanically in the same train, the preceding word associating and draw-
ing in the subsequent, that seems by taking off a man's attention from the thought
to the expression, to render him insusceptible of the delicate sensibility as to the
thought, which is the true spring of rhetorical pronunciation. That this is not
invariably the effect of getting by heart, the success of some actors on the stage
is an undeniable proof. But the comparative facility, arising from the much
greater brevity of their speeches, and from the relief and emotion that is given
to the player by the action of the other dialogists in the scene, makes the great-
est difference imaginable in the two cases. A man, through habit, becomes so
perfectly master of a speech of thirty or forty lines, which will not take him
three minutes to repeat, that he hath no anxiety about recollecting the words ;
his whole attention is to the sentiment. The case must be very different, when
15
114 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
not possess all these qualities in a remarkable degree, he
may yet preach very Tvell^ if he has a solid judgment,
the memory is charged with a discourse, which will take thirty minutes to de-
liver."
" Now when once the attention, as was hinted already, loses hold of the thought,
and is wholly occupied in tracing the series of the words, the speaker insensibly
to relieve himself from the difficulty of keeping up his voice at the same stretch,
falls into a kind of tune, which, without any regard to the sense of what is said,
returns as regularly, as if it were played on an instrument. One thing further
may be urged in favour of reading, and it is of some consequence, that it always
requires some preparation. A discourse must be written before it can be read.
When a man who does not read, .gets over, through custom, all apprehension
about the opinion of his hearers, or respect for their judgment, there is some dan-
ger, that laziness may prompt him to speak without any preparation, and con-
sequently to become careless what he says. But to return, the sum of what has
been offered, is not that reading a discourse is universally preferable to repeat-
ing it. By no means. But only that if the latter way admits of higher excel-
lence, the former is more attainable and less hazardous."
CampbeWs Lectures on Pulpit Eloquence.
" And here it may not, perhaps, be improper to make a few remarks on the
expediency of pronouncing sermons from memory ; and I make them the more
willingly, because what I have to say on this head may be comfortable to those
young men, whose memory, like my own, inclines rather to weakness, than to
strength.
" First, then, it can admit of no doubt, that every public speaker and teacher
ought to be able to speak from memory, or even without premeditation, as the
circumstances may require ; and should, therefore, now and then practise ex-
temporary speaking, and study to acquire a readiness of apprehension and a
command of words, and take every prudent method he can think of, for improv-
ing remembrance.
" Secondly, They whose faculties are uncommonly susceptible ; who can
retain a sermon after once or twice reading it ; or who, like the gentleman
abovementioned, can commit one to memory in two or three hours, may, at all
times, or as often as they choose, preach without notes ; especially, if they have
confidence in their recollection, and can divest themselves of anxiety. But many
men there are, of good parts, who, from natural bashfulness, or from bodily
weakness, or from having been in danger of exposing themselves through a sud-
den failure of memory, cannot depend on their presence of mind, or quickness of
recollection, when they appear in public ; though in the ordinary affairs of life
they have no reason to complain of this faculty. Such persons ought not to
preach without papers. If they do, it will be injurious both to themselves, and
to their hearers. To themselves, by tormenting them with solicitude, to the
great prejudice of their health. And to their hearers, because the fear of for-
getting will take off their attention from the management of their voice ; the
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 115
a tolerable stock of knowledge, and an easy way of speak-
ing. For, in this method, as in the other, there may be
consequence whereof is, that they will speak without that energy which impress-
es the meaning on the audience ; and may, moreover, contract bad habits of
drawling, canting, hesitating, or quick speaking ; which are all disagreeable to
rational hearers, and make every hearer inattentive ; and the most eloquent
termon insipid.
" Thirdly, Those preachers who, after much practice, cannot commit a dis-
course to memory in less than two days, (and this, I believe, is a common case,)
should never in my opinion, attempt it ; except, perhaps, on extraordinary oc-
casions, when they may be obliged to speak with ease and elegance, and yet
have no opportunity of reading. Two days every week are almost a third part
of human life. And when one considers, that the sermons thus committed to
memory are forgotten as soon as delivered, which is also a common case, who
would not regret such a waste of time ? At this rate, of thirty years employed
in the ministry, there are almost ten consumed in what ? in drudgery more
laborious, and far more unprofitable, than that of a schoolboy ; in loading the
memory with words, which are not remembered for three days together. Would
not the preacher have laid out those ye 53 to better purpose, in giving correct-
ness to his public discourses, or in other improving studies ; or in visiting and
instructing the neighbours ; or in agriculture, and the like liberal amusements ?
Besides, in these circumstances, a clergyman can never preach without long
preparation ; nor, if at any time his health should fail, without a degree of anxi-
ety that may be detrimental to both his mind and his body.
" Indeed, were sermons, that are pronounced from memory, found to have a
more powerful effect upon the hearer, than such as are read, I should not think
this time altogether lost. But, if the preacher have learned to read well, which
he may and ought to do, and if he write what he has to say with that distinctness
which is here recommended, and prepare himself for the public exhibition by sev-
eral private rehearsals at home, I am inclined to think, that he will pronounce
with more composure and self-command, and with an energy more becoming the
pulpit, than if he were to speak from recollection. For, in the one case, his mind
is at ease, and he has nothing to do, but to pronounce ; in the other, he pronoun-
ces and recollects at the same time ; and is, besides, liable to mistakes and fail-
ures of memory, and, if his nerves are not uncommonly strong, to occasional fits
of solicitude. Why does a musician choose to play by book even the music that
he remembers ? It is, because, by taking in, with one glance of his eye, a num-
ber of contiguous notes, his mind is always disengaged, and he is every where
the better prepared for introducing the expressive touches, and other necessary
ornaments. In like manner, a good reader will, if I mistake not, read more em-
phatically and with greater elegance, what he sees before him, and is well ac-
quainte'd with, than he can pronounce what is suggested by continual recollec-
tion ;. especially, if the discourse he has to deliver be of considerable length.
" As to the effect upon the hearers; if I am to judge by my own feelings.
116 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
different degrees of eloquence. You may further ob-
serve, that most of those who preach without getting their
sermons by heart, do not prepare themselves enough.
They ought to study their subject with the closest at-
tention ; prepare all those moving passages that should
affect the audience ; and give the several parts of their
discourse such an order as will best serve to set the
whole in the most proper light.
B. You have oftentimes spoken of this order ; do
you mean any thing else by it than a division of the sub-
ject ? Perhaps you have some peculiar notion on this
point too.
<A. You think that you rally me ; but in good ear-
nest, I am as singular in my opinion upon this head, as
on any other.
B. I easily believe you.
Jl. It is certainly so : and since we have fallen upon
this subject, I will show you how far I think the great-
er part of orators are defective in the point of order.
B. Since you are so fond of order, I hope you do
not dislike divisions.
and trust to the declaration of many persons of candour and sensibility, I must
say, that sermons in the mouth of a good reader have a more powerful energy,
than those that are spoken without hook. The pathos may be less vehement,
perhaps, but it is more solemn, and seems better adapted to the place, and to
the subject. Preachers, indeed, there are, who lay claim to extraordinary gifts,
and pretend to speak from supernatural impulse ; and there are hearers, who
give them credit for this ; and think, that what is written, and read to them, has
too much the air of mere human doctrine. But such a conceit is of no account
in rational inquiry ; for it only proves, that the preacher is vain and the people
ignorant.
" In Italy and France, sermons are generally pronounced without notes. But
they are at the same time accompanied with much theatrical gesture ; and the
consequence is, that the people consider them rather as an amusement, than as a
, part of the church service. In England, the established clergy do for the most
part read their serinons. And England has produced a greater number of good
I preachers, than any other country in Europe." Seattle on Memory.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 117
A. I am far from approving them.
B. Why ? Do they not methodise a discourse ?
A. For the most part, divisions give only a seeming
order ; while they really mangle and clog a discourse,
by separating it into two or three parts ; which must in-
terrupt the orator's action, and the effect it ought to
produce. There remains no true unity after such divis-
ions ;* seeing they make two or three different discours-
es, which are joined into one, only by an arbitrary con-
nexion. For three sermons preached at different times,
(if they be formed upon some regular concerted plan,
as the sermons in Advent usually are,) make one piece,
or entire discourse, as much", as the three points of any
of these sermons make one whole by being joined, and
delivered, together.f
* A text being opened, then the point upon which the sermon is to run is to
be opened ; and it will be the better heard and understood, if there be but one
point in a sermon ; so that one head, and only one, is well stated, and fully set
out. Discourse of the pastoral care, p. 249.
f A question has been moved, whether this method of laying down heads, as
it is called, be the best method of preaching. A very able judge, the archbish-
op of Carabray, in his dialogues on eloquence, declares strongly against it. But
notwithstanding his authority and arguments, I cannot help being of opinion,
that the present method of dividing a sermon into heads, ought not to be laid
aside. Established practice has now given it so much weight, that, were there
nothing more in its favour, it would be dangerous for any preacher to deviate so
far froin the common track. But the practice itself has also, in my judgment,
much reason on its side. If formal partitions give a sermon less of the oratorical
appearance, they render it, however, more clear, more easily apprehended, and
of course, more instructive to the bulk of hearers, which is always the main ob-
ject to be kept in view. The heads of a sermon are great assistances to the
memory, and recollection of a hearer. They serve also to fix his attention. They
enable him more easily to keep pace with the progress of the discourse ; they
give him pauses and resting places, where he can reflect on what has been said,
and look forward to what is to follow. They are attended with this advantage
too, that they give the audience the opportunity of knowing, beforehand, when
they are to be released from the fatigue of attention, and thereby make them
follow the speaker more patiently. " The conclusion of each head," says Quin-
tilian, " is a relief to the hearers ; just as upon a journey, the mile-stones, which
are set up on the road, serve to diminish the traveller's fatigue. For we are al-
118 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
B. What is it then that you mean by order ? How
confused must a discourse be that is not divided ?
A. Do you think there is more confusion in the ora-
tions of Demosthenes and Tully, than in the sermons of
your parish preacher ?
B. I do not know. I believe not.
Jl. You need not be afraid of giving your judgment
too freely. The harangues of these great men are not
divided as our sermons are. Nay, Isocrates (of whom
we spake so much before,) and other ancient orators, did
not follow our method of dividing. The fathers of the
church knew nothing of it. Even St. Bernard, the last
of them, only gives a hint oT some divisions, and does
not pursue them; nor divide his discourses in form.
And for a long time after him, sermons were not divid-
ed : it is a modern invention which we owe originally to
the scholastic divines.
B. I grant that the schoolmen are a very bad model
for eloquence ; but what form did the ancients use to
give their discourses ?
Jl, They did not divide them ; but they pointed out
carefully all those things that ought to be distinguished ;
to each of them they assigned its proper place ;* after
ways pleased with seeing our labour begin to lessen ; and, by calculating how
much remains, are stirred up to finish our task more cheerfully." With regard
to breaking the unity of a discourse, l-cannot be of opinion that there arises, from
that quarter, any argument against the method I am defending. If the unity be
broken, it is^to the nature of the heads, or topics of which the speaker treats,
that this is to be imputed ; not to his laying them down in form. On the con-
tra'ry, if his heads be well chosen, bis marking them out, and distinguishing them,
in place of impairing the unity of the whole, renders it more conspicuous and
complete; by showing how all the parts of a discourse bang upon one another,
and tend to one point. Blair.
* Ordinis heec virtus erit, et venus, aut ego fallor,
Ut jam nunc dicat, jam nunc debentia dici
Pleraque difierat, et prsesens in tempus omittat
Infelix operis summa, quia ponera totum
Nesciet Hor. d&A.P.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 119
having attentively considered where it might be intro-
duced to the best advantage, and be fittest to make a
due impression. Ofttimes that, which would seem noth-
ing to the purpose, by being unseasonably urged, has a
very great weight when it is reserved for its proper
place : till the audience be prepared by other things to
feel all its force and consequence. Nay, a single word,
when happily applied, will set the truth in the strong-
est light. Cicero tells us, that we ought sometimes to
delay giving a full view of the truth, till the very con-
clusion. But then throughout our discourse, there ought
to run such a concatenation of proofs, as that the first
may make way for the second ; and the next always
serve to support the former. We ought at first to give
a general view of our subject, and endeavour to gain the
favour of the audience by a modest introduction,* a re-
spectful address, and the genuine marks of candour and
probity. Then we should establish those principles on
which we design to argue ; and in a clear, easy, sensible
manner, propose the principal. facts we are to build on;
insisting chiefly on those circumstances, of which we in-
tend to make use afterwards. From these principles
and facts we must draw just consequences ; and argue
in such a clear and well-connected manner, that all
our proofs may support each other ; and so be the
more remembered. Every step we advance, our dis-
course ought to grow stronger; so that the hearers may
gradually perceive the force and evidence of the truth ;
and then we ought to display it in such lively images
* Sed base adjuvant in oratore, lenitas vocis, vultus, pudoris significatio, ver-
borum conaitas ; si quid persequare acrius, ut invitus, et coactus facere videare.
Facilitatis, liberalitatis, mansuetudinis, pietalis, grati animi, non appetentis T
non avidi signa proierri perutile est tantum autem efficitur sensu quodamac ra-
tione dicendi, ut quasi mores oratoris effingat oratio. Cicero Ds Qrcti.
120 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
and movements as 'are proper to excite the passions. In
order to this we must know their various springs, and
the mutual dependence they have one upon another ;
which of them we can most easily move, and employ to
raise the rest ; and which of them in fine, is able to
produce the greatest effects ; and must therefore be
applied to, in the conclusion of our discourse. It is oft-
times proper, at the close, to make a short recapitu-
lation, in which the orator ought to exert all his force
and skill in giving the audience a full, clear, concise vieAV
of the chief topics he has enlarged on. In short, pne is
not obliged always to follow this method without any
variation. There are exceptions and allowances to be
made, for different subjects and occasions. And even in
this order I have proposed, one may find an endless va-
riety. But now you may easily see, that this method,
(which is chiefly taken from Tully,) cannot be observed
in a discourse that is divided into three parts, nor can it
be followed in each particular division. We ought
therefore to choose some method, Sir, but such a meth-
od as is not discovered, and promised in the begin-
ning of our discourse. Cicero tells us, that the best
method is generally to conceal the order we follow, till
we lead the hearer to it without his being aware of it
before. I remember he says in express terms, that we
ought to conceal even the number of our arguments ; so
that one shall not be able to count them, though they
be very distinct in themselves ; and that we ought not
plainly to point out the division of a discourse. But such
is the undistinguishing taste of these latter ages, that an
audience cannot perceive any order, unless the speaker
distinctly explain it in the beginning ; and even intimate
to them his gradual advances from the first to the sec-
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE* 121.
ond, and following general heads or subdivisions of his
discourse.
C. But do not divisions help to support the attention,
and ease the memory of the hearers? It is for their
better instruction that the speaker divides his discourse.
A. A division chiefly relieves the speaker's memory.
And even this effect might be much better obtained by
his following a natural order without any express divis-
ion : for the true connexion of things best directs the
7 O
mind. Our common divisions are of use to those only,
who have studied, and been trained up to this method
in the. schools. And if the common people retain the
division better than the rest of the sermon ; it is only
because they hear it often repeated: but, generally
speaking, they best remember practical points, and such
things as strike their senses and imagination.
B. The order you propose may be proper enough
for some subjects : but it cannot be fit for all ; for, we
have not always facts to lay down.
At When we have none, we must do without them :
but there are very few subjects into which they might
not be aptly introduced. One of Plato's chief beau-
ties is, that in the beginning of his moral pieces he
usually gives us some fragment of history, or some tra-
dition that serves as the foundation of his discourse.
This method would far more become those, who preach
religion ; which is entirely founded upon tradition, histo-
ry, and the most ancient records. Indeed, most preach-
ers argue but weakly ; and do not instruct people suf-
ficiently, because they do not trace back things to these
sources.
B. We have already given you too much trouble ?
Sir, and I am almost ashamed to detain you longer : but
16
122 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
I wish heartily you would allow me to ask you a few
more questions concerning the rules of public discourse.
A. With all my heart ; I am not yet weary ; you
may dispose, as you please, of the little time I have left.
B. Well then, you would have all false and trifling
ornaments entirely banished from discourse. Now,
though you touched upon this point before, pray show
me by some sensible examples, how to distinguish such
false beauties from those that are solid and natural.*
A. Do you love quavering notes in music ? Are you
not better pleased with those brisk, significant notes that
describe things, and express the passions ?
B. Yes, certainly ; for, quavers are of no use ; they
only amuse the ear, and do not affect the mind. Our
music was once full of them, and was therefore very
weak and confused : but now we begin to refine our
taste, and to come nearer the music of the ancients ;
which is a kind of passionate declamation that acts pow-
erfully upon the soul.
</#. I knew that music, of which you are so good a
judge, would serve to make you understand what con-
cerns eloquence. There ought to be a kind of eloquence
in music itself; and in both these arts, we ought to re-
ject all false and trilling beauties. Do you not perceive
now that by a trilling discourse I mean the humming jin-
* False eloquence, like the prismatic glass,
Its gaudy colours spreads on every place ;
The face of nature we no more survey,
All glares alike without distinction gay.
But true expression, like the unchanging sun.
Clears and improves whate'er it shines upon,
It gilds all objects but it alters none.
Expression is the dress of thought, and still
Appears more decent, as more suitable.
Pope's Essay on Criticism.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 123
gle of languid, uniform periods ; a chiming of words that
returns perpetually, like the burden of a song ? This is
the false eloquence that resembles bad music.
B. I wish, Sir, you could make it a little^plainer still.
Jl. The reading of good and bad orators will more
effectually form your taste, on this point, than all the
rules in the world. However, it were easy to satisfy you
by some pertinent examples. I will not mention any
modern ones; though we abound in false ornaments.
That I may not offend any person, let us return to Isoc-
rates, who is the standard of those nice and florid ha-
rangues that are now in vogue. Did you ever read his
famous panegyric on- Helen?
B. Yes ; I have read it some time ago,
/#. How did you like it ?
B. Extremely well. I thought I never saw so much
wit, elegance, sweetness, invention and delicacy in any
composure. I own to you that Homer himself (whom I
read afterwards,) did not seem to have so much spirit as
he. But now that you have shown me what ought to
be the true aim of poets and orators, I see plainly that
Homer, who concealed his art, vastly surpasses Isocra-
tes, who took so much pains to display his skill. But I
was once charmed with that orator, and should have
been so still, if you had not undeceived me. Mr.
is the Isocrates of our days : and I perceive that by
showing the defects of that ancient orator, you condemn
all those, who imitate his florid, effeminate rhetoric.
A. I am now speaking of Isocrates only ; in the be-
ginning of his encomium he magnifies the love that The-
seus had for Helen, and fancied that he should give a
lofty idea of her, by describing the heroic qualities of
that great man who fell in love with her: as if Theseus
124 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
(whom the ancients always represent as weak and in-
constant in his amours,) could not have been smitten
with a woman of a moderate beauty. Then he comes to
the judgment that Paris formed of her. He says that
a dispute having arisen among the goddesses concerning
their beauty ; they agreed to make Paris judge of it :
upon which occasion Juno proffered him the empire of
Asia : Minerva assured him of constant victory in bat-
tles : and Venus tempted him with the beautiful Helen.
Now seeing Paris, when he was to determine this matter,
could not behold the faces of those goddesses, because
of their dazzling splendor, he could only judge of the
worth of the three things that they offered ; and upon
the comparison he preferred Helen to empire, and to
victory. Then the orator praises the judgment of Paris,
in whose determination the goddesses themselves acqui-
esced ; and adds these remarkable words :* " I wonder
that any one should think Paris indiscreet in choosing to
live with her, for whom many demi-gods would have
been willing to die."
C. This puts me in mind of our preachers, who are
so full of antitheses and turns of wit. There are a great
many such orators as Isocrates.
Jl. He is their master ! all the rest of his panegyric
is of the same strain.t It is founded on the lon war of
* Savpa^a 5' et fig otetcu xaxag ^sSov^svctBc/LL fov
fig ivexa Ttoh&oi fw Y\[uQew anoO-
lst>cR. HEL. LAUD.
t His very next words are these,-^ HG)$ &' ovx a,v
ELY} avovjfog si Tag Seag eiSog rtepi xa^ov
ai>rog xafflovg xafs^ov^cet xai [MI lavt^jv svofuGs
$ xaxeivag 6>pa fta/UcTTa
fouaag ;
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 125
Troy ; the calamities that the Greeks suffered for the
rape of Helen, and the praise of beauty, which has so
much power over men. There is nothing in the whole
discourse solidly proved ; nor the least point of moral
instruction. He judges of the worth of things only ac-
cording to men's extravagant passions. And as his proofs
are weak, so his style is flourished and finical. I quoted
this passage, profane as it is, because it is a very famous
one ; and because this affected manner is very much in
fashion. The more grave discourses of Isocrates are
composed in the same spruce, effeminate way ; and are
full of such false beauties as that I have now mentioned.
C. I find you like none of those witty turns, which
have nothing in them that is either solid, natural, or af-
fecting : and tend neither to convince, nor paint, nor per-
suade. The example you have brought from Isocrates,
though it be upon a trifling subject, is yet very pertinent ;
for, all such tinsel wit must appear still more ridiculous
when it is applied to grave and serious matters.*
* A loose and indiscriminate manner of applying the promises and threaten-
ings of the gospel, is ill-judged and pernicious ; it is not possible to conceive a
jnore effectual method of depriving the sword of the Spirit of its edge, thaa
adopting that lax generality of representation, which leaves its hearer nothing
to apply, presents no incentive to self-examination, and besides its utter ineffi-
ciency, disgusts by the ignorance of human nature, or the disregard to its best
interests, it infallibly betrays. Without descending to such a minute specifica-
tion of circumstances, as shall make our addresses personal, they ought unques-
tionably to be characteristic, that the conscience of the audience may feel the
hand of the preacher searching it, and every individual know where to class
himself. The preacher who aims at doing good will endeavour, above alt things,
to insulate his bearers, to place each of them apart, and render it^jmpossible for
him to escape by losing himself in the crowd. At the day of judgment, the at-
tention excited by the surrounding scene, the strange aspect of. nature, the dis-
solution of the elements, and the last trump, will have no other effect than to
cause the reflections of the sinner to return with a more overwhelming tide on
his own character, his sentence, his unchanging destiny ; and, amid the innume-
rable millions, who surround him, he will mourn apart. It is thus the Christian
126 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
A. But Sir, as to Isocrates, do not you think I had
reason to censure him as freely as Tally assures us Aris-
totle did ?
B. What says Tully ?
<A. That Aristotle,t perceiving Isocrates had pervert-
ed eloquence from its proper use, to amusement and os-
tentation ; and thereby drawn to himself the most con-
siderable disciples, he applied to him a verse of Philoc-
tetes, to show how much he was ashamed of being silent,
while that vain declaimer carried all before him. But
I have done now ; it is time for me to be going.
B. We cannot part with you so soon, Sir ; will you
then allow of no antitheses ?
A. Yes ; when the things we speak of are naturally
opposite one to another, it may be proper enough to show
their opposition. Such antitheses are just, and have a
solid beauty, and a right application of them is often the
most easy and concise manner of explaining things. But
it is extremely childish to use artificial turns and wind-
ings to make words clash and play one against another.
At first, this may happen to dazzle those, who have no
taste ; but they soon grow weary of such a silly affecta-
tion. Did you ever observe the Gothic architecture of
pur old churches ?
B- Yes ; it is very common.
JL. Did you take notice of the roses, holes, unconnect-
ed ornaments, and disjointed little knacks that these
Gothic buildings are full of. These odd conceits are
just such beauties in architecture as forced antitheses
minister should endeavour to prepare the tribunal of conscience, and turn the
eyes of every one of his hearers on himself.
Hall on the discouragements and supports of the Christian ministry.
+ Lib. iii. >) 35.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 127
and quibbles are in eloquence. The Grecian architec-
ture is far more simple, and admits of none but natural,
solid, and majestic ornaments ; we see nothing in it but
what is great, proportioned, and well placed. But the
Gothic kind was invented by the Arabians ; who being
a people of a quick, sprightly fancy, and having no rule
nor culture, could scarce avoid falling into these whim-
sical niceties. And this vivacity corrupted their taste
in all other things. For, they used sophisms in their
logic ; they loved little knacks in architecture ; and in-
vented witticisms in poetry and eloquence. All these
are of the same kind.
B. This is curious, indeed. You think then that a
sermon, full of forced antitheses, and such kind of orna-
ments, is like a church built in the Gothic way.
A. Yes ; I think the comparison is just.
B. Let me ask you but one question more, and then
you shall go.
A. What is it ?
B. It seems very difficult to give a particular account
of facts, in a noble style ; and yet we ought to do so, if
we talk solidly as you require. Pray, what is the pro-
per style for expatiating, in such cases ?
A. We are so much afraid of a low strain, that our
expressions are usually dry, lifeless, and indeterminate.
They, who praise a saint, pitch on the most magnificent
phrases. They tell us he was an admirable person;
that his virtues were celestial ; that he was rather an
angel, than a man. And thus the whole encomium is a
mere declamation, without any proof; and without draw-
ing a just character. On the contrary, the ancient
Greeks made little use of these general terms, which
prove nothing : but they insisted much on facts, and the
128 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE..
particulars of a character. For instance, Xenophon does
not once say in all his Cyropasdia, that Cyrus was an ad-
mirable man : but throughout the work he makes us
really admire him. Thus is it, that we ought to praise
holy persons, by entering into the particular detail of
their sentiments and actions. But there prevails an af-
fected politeness among the pedantic and conceited part
of all ranks and professions, who value themselves upon
their wit or learning. They never venture to use any
expression, but what they reckon fine and uncommon.
They .talk always in a high strain ;* and would think it
beneath them to call things by their proper names.
Now in true eloquence almost every thing may be intro-
duced. The perfection of poetry itself, (which is the
loftiest kind of composure) depends on a full and lively
description of things in all their circumstances. When
Virgil represents the Trojan fleet leaving the African
shore, or arriving on the coast of Italy, you see every
proper circumstance exactly described. But we must
own that the Greeks entered still further into the par-
ticular detail of things ; and followed nature more close-
ly in representing the smallest circumstances. For which
reason, many people would be apt (if they dared) to
reckon Homer too plain and simple in his narrations. In
this ancient, beautiful simplicity, (which few are able to
relish,) this poet very much resembles the holy scrip-
ture : but in many places the sacred writings surpass his,
as much as he excels all the other ancients, in a natural
and lively representation of things.
* Prima est eloquentise virtus perspicuitas ; et quo quisque ingenio minus
ralet, hoc se magis altollere et dilalare conatur ; ut statura breves indigitos eri-
guntur; et plura infirmi minantur. Nam tumidos, et corruptos, et linnu/os, et
quocumque alio cacozeJias genere peccantes, certum habeo, non virium, sed in-
firmitatis vitio laborare ; ut corpora non robore, sed valetudine, inflantur.
Quinl. lib. ii. c. 3.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 129
B. In relating facts, then, ought we to describe every
individual circumstance that belongs to them?
Ji. No : we should represent nothing to the hearers
but what deserves their attention ; and helps to give a
clear and just idea of the things we describe ; so that it
requires great judgment to make a right choice of. cir-
cumstances.* But we must not be afraid of mentioning
such as can be anv way serviceable ; for it is a false po-
liteness that leads us to suppress some useful things, be-
cause we do not think them capable of any ornament*
Besides, Homer has shown us by his example, that we
might give a proper grace and embellishment to every
subject.t
B. Seeing you condemn the florid, swelling style ;
what kind do you reckon fittest for public use ?
A. There ought to be a variety of style in every dis-
course. We should rise in our expression when we speak
of lofty subjects ; and be familiar, in common ones, with-
out being coarse, or grovelling.J In most cases, an easy
simplicity and exactness is sufficient ; though some things
* See Longinus } $ x.
t First follow nature, and your judgment frame
By her just standard, which is still the same ;
Unerring nature, still divinely bright,
One clear, unchanged, and universal light ;
Life, force, and beauty must to all impart,
At once the source, and end, and test of art.
Art from that fund each just supply provides,
Works without show ; and without pomp presides.
Those rules of old discover'd, not devised,
Are nature still, but nature methodized ;
Nature, like monarchy, is but restrain'd
By the same laws which first herself ordained.
Pope's Essay on Criticism.
J Etftfti/ ap' o i$iwtiG[ios svione tov xotf/tou Ttapartohv
sTtvywoctxetau, yap avfo&sv ex fov xot~
17
130 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
require vehemence, and sublimity. If a painter should
draw nothing but magnificent palaces, he could not fol-
low truth ; but must paint his own fancies ; and by that
means soon cloy us. He ought tQ copy nature in its
agreeable varieties ; and after drawing a stately city, it
might be proper to represent a desert, and the huts of
shepherds. Most of those, who aim at making fine ha-
rangues, injudiciously labour to clothe all their thoughts
in a pompous, gaudy dress ;* and they fancy that they
have succeeded happily, when they express some gene-
ral remarks in a florid, lofty style. Their only care is
to fill their discourse with abundance of ornaments, to
please the vitiated taste of their audience ; like ignorant
cooks, who know not how to season dishes, in a proper,
natural way ; but fancy they must give them an exquis-
ite relish by mixing excessive quantities of the most sea-
vov (3tov* to 8e GvvvjOsg Y$YI TtiGtotepov --- tavfa, yap
7tapa%vsi tviv tcfooT^i', a/l/l 5 ovx iSiotevEL ty GV^LOJV
LONGINUS, XXxi.
" Affectation of every sort is odious, and more especially an affectation that
betrays a minister into expressions fit only for the mouths of the illiterate.
Truth, indeed, needs no ornament, neither does a beautiful person ; but to clothe
it therefore in rags, when a decent habit was at hand, would be esteemed pre-
posterous and absurd. The best proportioned figure may be made offensive by
beggary and filth ; and even truths, which came down from Heaven, though they
cannot forega their nature, may be disguised and disgraced by unsuitable lan-
guage. He' that speaks to be understood by a congregation of rustics, and yet
in terms that would not offend academic ears, has found the happy medium.
This is certainly practicable to men of taste and judgment, and the practice of
a few proves it." Coicper.
* Namque illud genus ostentationi compositum, solum petit audientium vo-
luptatem ; ideoqtie omnes dicendi artes aperit, ornatumque orationis exponit
mala affectatio, per omne dicendi genus peccat. Nam et tumida, et esilia, et
prsedulcia, et abundautia, et arcessita, et exultantia sub idem nomen cadunt.
Denique xaxo^Aov vocatur, quicquid esf ultra virtutem ; quoties ingenium judi-
cio caret, et specie boni falletur ; omnium in eloquentia vitiorum pessisnum ;
nam caetera cum vitentur, hoc petitur. Quint, lib, viii. c. 3.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 131
soning things. But the style of a true orator has nothing
in it that is swelling or ostentatious ; he always adapts
it to the subjects he treats of, and the persons he in-
structs ; and manages it so judiciously that he never aims
at being sublime and lofty, but when he ought to be so.*
* The style most fit for the pulpit is thus defined by Dr. FORDYCK. " I
would call it, in a lew words, simple, yet great ; adorned, yet chaste ; animated
and strong, at the same time easy, and somewhat diffuse ; and, in fine, numerous
and flowing, without running into the poetical, or swelling into bombast."
Eloquence of the Pulpit.
I have been curious enough to take a list of several hundred words in a
sermon of a new beginner, which not one of his hearers among a hundred could
possibly understand ; neither can I easily call to mind any clergyman of my own
acquaintance who is wholly exempt from this error, although many of them agree
with me in the dislike of the thing. But I am apt to put myself in the place of
the vulgar, and think many words difficult or obscure, which the preacher will
not allow to be so, because those words are obvious to scholars. I believe the
method observed by the famous Lord Falkland, in some of his writings, would
not be an ill one for young divines ; I was assured by an old person of quality,
who knew him well, that when he doubted whethsr a word was perfectly intelli-
gible or not, he used to consult one of his lady's chambermaids, (not the waiting
woman, because it was possible she might be conversant in romances,) and by
her judgment was guided whether to receive or reject it. And if that great per-
son thought such a caution necessary in treatises offered to the learned world,
it will' be sure at least as proper in sermons, where the meanest hearer is sup-
posed to be concerned, and where very often a lady's chambermaid may be al-
lowed to equal half the congregation, both as to quality and understanding. But
I know not how it comes to pass, that professors in most arts and sciences are
generally the worst qualified to explain their meanings to those who are not of*
their tribe ; a common farmer shall make you understand in three words, that
his foot is out of joint, or his collar-bone broken ; wherein a surgeon, after a
hundred terms of art, if you are not a scholar, shall leave you to seek. It is
frequently the same case in law, physic, and even many of the meaner arts.
Swift's Letter to' a Young Clergyman.
A man of merit and breeding you may disguise by putting him in the apparel
of a clown, but you cannot justly find fault, that in that garb he meets not with
the same reception in good company, that he would meet with if more suitably-
habited. The outward appearance is the first thing that strikes us in a person ;
the expression is the first thing that strikes us in a discourse. Take care at
least, that in neither, there be any thing to make an unfavourable impression,
which may preclude all further inquiry and regard. It was extremely well said
by a very popular preacher in our own days, who, when consulted by a friend
that had a mind to publish, whether he thought it befitting a writer on religion t
132 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE,
J3. What you said concerning the language of scrip-
ture, makes me wish earnestly that you would show us
the beauty of it. May we not see you some time to^
morrow ?
Jl, I shall hardly have time to-morrow ; but I will
endeavour to wait on you this evening. And since you
seem so desirous of it, we will talk of the word of God ;
for hitherto we have only spoken of the language of men.
C. Farewell, Sir, I beg of you to be punctual ; oth-
erwise we must come and find you out,
attend to such little matters as grammatical correctness ; answered, " By all
means. It is much better to write so as to make a critic turn Christian, than so
as to make a Christian turn critic." Campbell on Pulpit Eloquence.
THIRD DIALOGUE.
C. I BEGAN to fear, Sir, that you would not come ;
and was very near going to seek for you at Mr. .
A. I was detained by a perplexing affair I had upon
my hands : but I have got rid of it to my satisfaction.
B. I am very glad of it ; for, we wanted you ex-
tremely to finish the subject we were talking of in the
morning,
C. Since I parted with you, Sir, I heard a sermon
at -, and I thought of you. The preacher spoke in
a very edifying manner : but I question whether the
common people understood him or not.
Jl. It happens but too often (as I heard an ingenious
lady observe,) that our preachers speak Latin in English.
The most essential quality of a good preacher is to be
instructive :* but he must have great abilities and expe-
rience to make him so.t On the one hand he must be
* As I take it, the two principal branches of preaching are, first, to tell the
people what is their duty, and then to convince them that it is so. The topics
for both these, we know, are brought from scripture and reason. Upon the for-
mer, I wish it were often practised to instruct the hearers in the limits,
extent, and compass of every duty ; which requires a good deal of skill and
judgment ; the other branch is, I think, not so difficult. But what I would offer
upon both, is this, that it seems to be in the power of a reasonable clergyman, if
he will be at the pains, to make the most ignorant man comprehend what is his
duty, and to convince him by arguments drawn to the level of his understanding,
that he ought to perform it. Swift.
t At the bar, in the senate, on the bench of justice, and in the chair of state,
it is admitted that a sound and cultivated understanding is necessary. Shall a
weak, honest man then, be deemed adequate to the discharge of duties which
made the chiefest of the apostles exclaim, " who is sufficient for these things ?"
An illiterate physician injures our health ; an unskilful advocate sacrifices our
money ; a weak general frustrates a campaign. What then ? An incompetent
134 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
perfectly acquainted with the force of scripture expres-
sions : on the other he must understand the capacity of
those to whom he preaches ; and adapt himself to it.
Now this requires a solid knowledge, and great discern-
ment. Preachers speak every day to people of the
scripture, the church, the Mosaic law, the gospel ; of
sacrifices ; of Moses and Aaron, and Melchisedec ; of the
prophets and apostles : but there is not sufficient care
taken to instruct the people in the true meaning of these
things, and in the characters of those holy persons.
One might follow some preachers twenty years, without
getting sufficient knowledge of religion.
B. Do you think that people are really ignorant of
those things you mentioned ?
C. For my part I believe they are ; and that few
or none understand them enough to receive any benefit
from sermons.
spiritual guide endangers our souls. Talent and science are far, far lees neces-
sary to the emperor, than to the preacher. The former, may do his business by
proxy; or if not done, still only temporal interests suffer. But the preacher's
work is to be done by himself, and if done unskilfully, the evil is irreparable and
eternal. Next to piety, he needs sound, practical good sense. He needs this,
among a thousand reasons, to preserve him from mistaking affectation of origin-
ality, for great genius ; rhapsody, for eloquence ; and turgid declamation, for
powerful instruction. To secure the respect of intelligent hearers, he needs a
deep and steady judgment, and a thorough knowledge of men. Erasmus, who
has been regarded as a sort of oracle on this subject, says ; " It is not enough to
know what should be spoken, without knowing when, to whom, how, with what
words, in what order, with what ornament, with what action." God forbid, that
talent or learning should be exalted at the expense of piety. " Let the collected
wisdom of Greece and Rome bow before the cross. At the altar of God we
would kindle the torch >of science ; and when kindled let it be quenched without
scruple, if it does not, like the star of Bethlehem, conduct to the Saviour." But
surely, he will be most likely to be an able instructor, who is himself wise and
well instructed. With a good understanding, replenished by extensive reading,
he can make his knowledge of languages, of oriental antiquities and usages, phi-
losophy, logic, history, criticism and eloquence, all tributary to the grand pur-
pose of explaining and enforcing the sacred truths of the bible. Editor.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 135
4
B. That may be true of the lowest rank of people.
C. Well ; ought not they to be instructed as well
as others ? Do not they make up the bulk of mankind ?
A. The truth is, persons of rank and fashion have
but little more knowledge of religion than the common
people. There are always three fourth parts of an ordi-
nary audience, who do not know those first principles of
religion, in which the preacher supposes every one to
be fully instructed.
B. Would you then have him explain the catechism
in his sermons to a polite congregation ?
'/#. I grant there is a due regard to be had to an au-
dience ; and discretion to be used in adapting a discourse
to their capacity. But still without giving the least of-
fence, a preacher might remind the most discerning
hearers of those passages of the sacred history, which
explain the origin and institution of holy things. This
way of having recourse to the first foundations of relig-
ion, would be so far from seeming low, that it would
give most discourses that force and beauty which they
generally want. This is particularly true with regard
to the mysteries of religion ; for the hearers can never
be instructed, nor persuaded, if you do not trace things
back to their source. For example, how can you make
them understand what the church says, after St. Paul,*
that Jesus Christ is our Passover, if you do not explain
to them the Jewish Passover, which was appointed to
be a perpetual memorial of their deliverance from
Egypt, and to typify a more important redemption that
was reserved for the Messiah. It is for this reason, I
said that almost every thing in religion is historical.
And if preachers would have a full knowledge of this
truth, they must be very conversant in the scripture,
* 1 Cor. v. 7.
136 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
B. You must excuse my interrupting you on this
subject ; Sir, you told us in the morning, that the scrip-
tures are eloquent ; and I was glad to hear you say so*
Let me intreat you to show us how we may discern the
beauties of scripture ; and in what its eloquence con-
sists. The Latin Bible seeins to me most vulgar and
inaccurate. I see no delicacy in it. What is it then
that you so much admire ?
A. The Latin is only a literal version in which, out
of respect to the original, there are many Greek and
Hebrew phrases retained. Do you despise Homer be-
cause he has been sorrily translated into French ?
B. But the Greek itself (which is the original lan-
guage of the New Testament) appears to me very
coarse and unpolite.
Ji. The apostles were not acquainted with the gen-
uine Greek, but used that corrupted kind which prevail-
ed among the Hellenistical Jews. For this reason St<
Paul says* ' I am rude in speech,' but not in knowledge.
It is very obvious that the apostle here only meant he
was not a master of the Greek tongue ; though he solid-
ly explained the doctrine of the holy scripture.
C. Had not the apostles the gift of speaking un-
known tongues ?
A. Undoubtedly : and they even conveyed that gift
to great numbers of their illiterate converts. But as
for the languages that the apostles had learnt in a nat-
ural way, we have reason to believe that the Spirit of
God permitted them to speak as they did before. St.
Paul, who was a citizen of Tarsus, in Cilicia, naturally
spake the corrupted Greek used among the Jews there ;
and we find that this is the language he wrote in. St.
Luke seems to have understood Greek a little better.
* 2Cor. xi. 16.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 137
C. But I always thought that in the passage you
mentioned, St. Paul gave up all pretences to oratory ;
and regarded nothing but the simplicity of the evangel-
ical doctrine. Nay, I have heard several persons of
worth and good judgment affirm, that the holy scripture
is not eloquent. St. Jerom was punished for being dis-
gusted at the simplicity of scripture ; and liking Tully
better. St. Austin (in his confessions) seems to have
fallen into the same fault. Did not God intend to try
our faith by the obscurity, and even by the lowness of
the scripture-style, as well as by the poverty of our Re-
deemer ?
/#. -You seem, Sir, to carry this point too far.
Whether do you choose to believe St. Jerom, when he
was punished for having followed his youthful studies
too closely in his retreat ; or when he had made the
greatest progress both in sacred and profane learning ;
and, in an epistle to Paulinus, invited him to study the
scripture ; assuring him that he would find more charms
in the prophets than he had discovered in the heathen
poets ? Or, was St. Austin's judgment better in his
youth, when the seeming meanness of the sacred style
disgusted him ; than when he composed his books of
the Christian Doctrine ? There he often says, that .St.
Paul was powerfully persuasive ; and that the torrent
of his eloquence must be perceived by the most unat-
tentive reader. He adds, that in the apostle, wisdom
did not seek after the beauty of language ; but that the
beauties of language offered themselves, and attended
his wisdom. He quotes many lofty passages of his epis-
tles ; wherein he shows all the art andr^ddress of the
heathen orators far outdone. St. Austin excepts only
two things in this comparison: he says, that these ora-
18
138 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
tors studied tKe ornaments of eloquence ; but that the
beauties of oratory naturally followed St. Paul, and oth-
ers of the sacred writers. And then he owns that he
did not sufficiently understand the delicacies of the
Greek tongue, to be a competent judge, whether there
be the same numbers and cadence of periods in the sa-
cred text, that we meet with in profane authors. I for-
got to tell you that he quotes that passage of the proph-
et Amos which begins thus, ' wo to them that are at
ease in Zion, and trust in the mountain of Samaria :'*
and assures us that in this place the prophet has sur-
passed every thing that is sublime in the heathen ora-
tors.
C. But how do you understand these words of St.
Paul ;t " my speech and my preaching was not with the
enticing (persuasive) words of man's wisdom ?" Does he
not tell the Corinthians that he came not to preach Christ
to them, with the sublimity of discourse and of wisdom ;
that he " knew nothing among them but Jesus, and him
crucified :" that his preaching was founded, not upon the
persuasive language of human wisdom and learning, but
upon the sensible effects of the Spirit and the power of
God ; to the end (as he adds) " that their faith should
not depend upon the wisdom of men, but on the power
of God." What is the meaning of these words, Sir ?
What stronger expressions could the apostle use to con-
demn this art of persuasion that you would establish ?
For my part, I freely own that at first I was glad when
you censured all those affected ornaments of discourse
that vain declaimers are so fond of: but the sequel of
your scheme does not answer the pious beginning of it.
I find that you would still make preaching a human art.
and banish apostolical simplicity from the pulpit.
* Ch. vi. t 1 Cor. xi. 4.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 139
A. Though you judge very unfavourably of my es-
teem for eloquence, I am not dissatisfied at the zeal,
with which you censure it. However, Sir, let us endeav-
our to understand one another aright. There are sev-
eral worthy persons who judge, with you, that eloquent
preaching is repugnant to the simplicity of the gospel.
But when we have mutually explained our sentiments,
perhaps they may be found to agree. What then do
you mean by simplicity ? And what do you call elo-
quence ?
C. By simplicity, I mean a discourse without f any
artifice or magnificence. By eloquence, I mean a dis-
course full of art and ornaments.
/#. When you require an artless, simple discourse,
would you have it without order, and connexion ; with-
out solid and convincing proofs ; and without a proper
method for instructing the ignorant ? Would you have a
preacher say nothing that is pathetic, and never endeav-
our to affect the heart ?
C. Far from it ; I would have a discourse that both
instructs and moves people.
Jl. That would make it eloquent ; for we have seen
before that eloquence is the art of instructing and per-
suading men, by moving their passions.
C. I grant that preachers ought to convince and af-
fect their hearers ; but I would have them to do it with-
out art, by an apostolical simplicity.
A. The more artless and natural such a convincing,
persuasive eloquence is, it must be the more powerful.
But let us inquire whether the art of persuasion be in-
consistent with the simplicity of the gospel. What mean
you by art ?
C. I mean a system of rules that men have invented.
140 DIALOGtJES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
and usually observe in their discourses, to make them
more beautiful, elegant, and pleasing.
/?. If by art you only mean this invention to render
a discourse more handsome and polished in order to
please people ; I will not dispute with you about words ;
but will readily acknowledge that this art ought not to
be admitted into sermons ; for, (as we agreed before,)
this vanity is unworthy of eloquence, and far more unbe-
coming the sacred function. This is the very point about
which I reasoned so much with Mr. B. But if by art
and eloquence, you mean what the most judicious writers
among the ancients understood, we must then set a just
value upon eloquence.
C. What did they understand by it ?
Ji. According to them the art of eloquence compre-
hends those means, that wise reflection and experience
have discovered, to render a discourse proper to persuade
men of the truth ; and to engage them to love and obey
it. And this is what you think every preacher should
be able to do* For did you not say that you approved
of order, and a right manner of instruction ; solidity of
reasoning, and pathetic movements ; I mean such as can
touch and affect people's hearts ? Now this is what I
call eloquence : you may give it what name you please.
C. Now I comprehend your notion of eloquence ; and
I cannot but acknowledge that such a manly, grave, se-
rious manner of persuasion would much become the pul-
pit ; and that it seems even necessary to instruct people
with success. But how do you understand those words
of St. Paul that 1 quoted before ? Do they not express-*
ly condemn eloquence ?
Ji- In order to explain the apostle's words, let me,
ask you a few questions*
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 141
C. As many as you please, Sir.
A. Is it not true that the apostle argues with won-
derful strength in his epistles ? Does he not reason
finely against the heathen philosophers, and the Jews,
in his epistle to the Romans ? Is there not great force,
in what he says concerning the inability of the Mosaic
law to justify men ?
C. Certainly.
/?. Is there not a chain of solid reasoning in his epis-
tle to the Hebrews, about the insufficiency of the ancient
sacrifices ; the rest that David promised to the children
of God, besides that which the Israelites enjoyed in Pal-
estine after Joshua's days ; concerning the order of Aa-
ron, and that of Melchisedec ; and the spiritual and
eternal covenant that behoved to succeed the carnal and
earthly one which was established by the mediation of
Moses, for a time only ? Are not the apostle's argu-
ments on these several subjects very strong and conclu-
sive ?*
* The eloquence of St. Paul, in most of his speeches and argumentations,
bears a very great resemblance to that of Demosthenes. Some important point
being always uppermost in his view, he often leaves his subject, and flies from it
jvith brave irregularity, and as unexpectedly again returns to Lis subject, when
one would imagine that he had entirely lost sight of it. For instance, in his
defence before king Agrippa, Acts, chap, xxvi., when, in order to wipe ofl" the
aspersions thrown upon him by the Jews, that he was a turbulent and seditious
person, he seta out with clearing his character, proving the integrity of his mor-
als, and his inoffensive, unblameable behaviour, as one who hoped, by those
means, to attain that happiness of another life, for wh?ch the twelve tribes served
God continually in the temple; on a sudden he drops the continuation of his de-
fence, and cries out, " Why should it be thought a thing incredible with you,
that God should raise the dead ?" It might be reasonably expected, that this
would be the end of his argument ; but by flying to it, in so quick and unexpect-
ed a transition, he catches his audience before they are aware, and strikes dumb
his enemies, though they will not be convinced. And this point being once ear-
ned, he comes about again as unexpectedly, by, I verily thought, &c., and goes
on with his defence, till it brings him again to the same point of the Resurrec-
tion, in verse 23, Smith's Longinus,
142 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
C. I think they are.
/2. When St. Paul, therefore, disclaimed the use of
" the persuasive words of man's wisdom," he did not
mean to condemn true wisdom, and the force of rea-
soning.
C. That appears plainly from his own example.
Jl. Why then do you think that he meant to con-
demn solid eloquence, any more than true wisdom ?
C. Because he expressly rejects eloquence in that
passage, which I desired you to explain.
c/2. But doth he not likewise disclaim wisdom ? The
place seems to be more express against wisdom, and hu-
man reasoning, than against eloquence. And yet he him-
self reasoned frequently ; and was very eloquent. You
grant that he argued well ; and St. Austin assures you
that the apostle was an orator.
C. You plainly point out the difficulty ; but you do
not answer it. Pray, show us how it is to be solved.
A. St. Paul reasoned much : he persuaded effectu-
ally : so that he was really an excellent philosopher and
an orator. But as he tells us in the place you quoted ;
his preaching was not founded on human reasoning, nor
on the art of persuasion. It was a ministry of divine in-
stitution, that owed its efficacy to God alone.* The con-
* On the one hand, it deserves attention, that the most eminent and success-
ful preachers of the gospel in different communities, a Brainerd, a Baxter, and a
Schwartz, have been the most conspicuous for a simple dependance upon spirit-
ual aid f and, on the other, that no success whatever has attended the ministra-
tions of those by whom this doctrine has been either neglected or denied. They
have met with such a rebuke of their presumption, in the total failure of their
efforts, that none will contend for the reality of divine interposition, as far as
they are concerned ; for when has the arm of the Lord been revealed to those
pretended teachers of Christianity, who believe there is no such arm ? We must
leave them to labour in a field, respecting which God has commanded the clouds
not to rain upon it. As if conscious of this, of late they have turned their efforts
into a new channel, and, despairing of the conversion of sinners, have confined
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 143
version of the whole world was, according to the ancient
prophecies, to be the great and standing miracle of the
Christian religion. This was the kingdom of God that
came from heaven ; and was to convert and reduce all
the nations of the earth to the worship and service of
the true God. Jesus Christ crucified, by his being de-
clared to them, was to draw them all to himself merely
by the powder of his cross. The philosophers had reas-
oned and disputed, without converting either themselves^
or others. The Jews had been intrusted with a law
that showed them their miseries, but could not relieve
them. All mankind were convinced of the general dis-
order and corruption that reigned among them. Jesus
Christ came with his cross ; that is, he came poor, hum-
ble, and suffering for us. To silence our vain, presump-
tuous reason, he did not argue like the philosophers ;
but he determined with authority. By his miracles, and
his grace, he showed that he was above all. That he
might confound the false wisdom of men, he sets before
them the seeming folly and scandal of his cross ; that is,
the example of his profound humiliation. That, which
mankind reckoned folly,* and at which they were most
offended, was the very thing, that should convert and
lead them to God. They wanted to be cured of their
pride, and their excessive love of sensible objects : and
to affect them the more, God showed them his Son cru-
cified. The apostles preached him ; and walked in his
steps. They had not recourse to any human means,
themselves to the seduction of the faithful ; in which, it must be confessed, they
have acted in a manner perfectly consistent with their principles ; the propaga-
tion of heresy requiring, at least, no divine assistance.
Hall on the discouragements and supports of the Christian ministry*
* I Cor. i. 23, 25.
144 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
neither to philosophy, nor rhetoric, nor policy, nor wealth,
nor authority. God would have the sole glory of his
work : and the success of it, to depend entirely on him-
self : he therefore chose what is weak ; and rejected
what is strong ; to display his power in the most sensi-
ble manner. He brought all out of nothing in the con-
version of the world, as well as at the creation of it.
That work therefore had this divine character stamped
upon it, that it was not foundad upon any thing that the
world admired, or valued. It would only have weak-
ened and frustrated the wonderful power of the cross
(as St. Paul says*) to ground the .preaching of the gos-
pel upon natural means. It was necessary that without
human help, the gospel should of itself open people's
hearts ; and by that prodigious efficacy show mankind
that it came from God. Thus was human wisdom con-
founded, and rejected. Now, what must we conclude
from hence ? This only ; that the conversion of the na-
tions, and the establishment of the Christian church, was
not owing to the learned reasonings, and persuasive words
of man's wisdom. It does not imply that there was no
eloquence, nor wisdom in several of those, who first
preached the gospel : but only, that they did not de-
pend on this eloquent wisdom ; nor did they study it as
a thing that was to give an efficacy to their doctrine.
It was founded (as the apostle tells ust) not upon the
persuasive discourses of human philosophy ; but solely
upon the effects of the Spirit, and the power of God ;
that is, upon the miracles that struck the eyes and minds
of men, and upon the inward operation of the divine
grace.
* 1 Cor. i. 17.
T Ovx sv TtetOotg aLvtycntivnS Gofytag hoyoig
1 Cor. ii. 4,
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 145
C. According to your reasoning, then, they make void
the efficacy of our Saviour's cross, who ground their
preaching upon human wisdom and eloquence.
A. Undoubtedly. The ministry of the word is en-
tirely built upon faith : and the preachers of it ought to
pray and purify their hearts, and expect all their success
from heaven. They should arm themselves with 'the
sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God ;' and not
depend on their own abilities.* This is the necessary
preparation for preaching the gospel. But though the
inward fruit and success of it must be ascribed to grace
alone, and the efficacy of God's word ; there are yet
some things that man is to do on his part.
C. Hitherto you have talked very solidly : but I see
plainly you are now returning to your first opinion.
Jl. I did not change it. Do not you believe that the
work of our salvation depends upon God's grace ?
C. Yes ; it is an article of faith.
A. You own, however, that Ave ought to use great
prudence in choosing a right station and conduct in life ;
* The preacher peculiarly needs assistance from heaven. He can neither rely
on his own talents, nor trust his own heart. He cannot rely on his fellow-men.
Whither then shall he look ? Who shall make him able, or faithful, or success-
ful in his work ? Who shall open to him the treasures of divine truth ? Who shall
give him access to the hearts of his hearers, and enable him to speak in demon-
stration of the Spirit, and with power ? Who shall sooth the anxieties that agi-
tate his bosom, cheer his trembling spirit, and guide his footsteps, in seasons of
despondence ? Who shall give him that knowledge of his own heart, that con-
troul of his temper and actions, that meekness, fortitude and exemplary holiness,
which become his sacred office ? In short, who shall secure him against falling
into foul immorality, or fatal apostacy from the truth ? Blessed be God, that a
poor worm may ask and receive help from Him} in whom is everlasting strength.
Weakness itself may look up with courage, to the throne of grace ; and venture
forward in the greatest work, relying on a Saviour's all sufficient aid. Yes,
blessed be God, that the humble minister, while he feels himself to be less than
nothing, may yet say without presumption ; " I can do all things, through Christ
which strengthened me." Editor.
19
146 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
and in avoiding dangerous temptations. Now, do we
make void the grace of God, and its efficacy, by watch-
ing, and prayer, and a prudent circumspection ? Certain-
ly not. We owe all to God ; and yet he obliges us to
comply with an external order of human means. The
apostles did not study the vain pomp, and trifling orna-
ments of the heathen orators. They did not fall into the
subtile reasonings of the philosophers, who made all to
depend upon those airy speculations in which they lost
themselves. The apostles only preached Jesus Christ
with all the force, and magnificent simplicity of the scrip-
ture language. It is true they had no need of any pre p-
aration for their ministry ; because, the Spirit, who de-
scended upon them in a sensible manner, supplied them
with words in preaching the gospel. The difference then
betwixt the apostles, and their, successors in the ministry 9
is, that these, not being miraculously inspired like the
apostles, have need to prepare themselves, and to fill
their minds with the doctrine and spirit of the scripture,
to form their discourses. But this preparation should
never lead them to preach in a more artless manner than
the apostles. Would you not be satisfied if preachers
used no more ornaments in their sermons than St. Peter,
St. Paul, St. James, St. Jude, and St. John did ?
C. I think I ought to require no more. And I must
confess that since (as you say) eloquence consists chiefly
in the order, force, and propriety of the words by which
men are persuaded and moved ; it does not give me so
much offence as it did. I always reckoned eloquence to
be an v art that is inconsistent with the simplicity of the
gospel.
A. There are two sorts of people that have this no-
tion of it ; the false orators, who are widely mistaken in
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 147
seeking after eloquence amidst a vain pomp of words ;
and some pious persons who have no great depth of knowl-
edge : but though out of humility they avoid that false
rhetoric, which consists in a gaudy, ostentatious style :
they yet aim at true eloquence, by striving to persuade.
and move their hearers.
C. I now understand your notions exactly well : let
us now return to the eloquence of the scripture.
A. In order to perceive it, nothing is more useful
than to have a just taste of the ancient simplicity : and
this may best be obtained by reading the most ancient
Greek authors.* I say the most ancient ; for those
Greeks whom the Romans so justly despised, and call-
ed Graeculi, were then entirely degenerate. As I told
you before, you ought to be perfectly acquainted with
Homer, Plato, Xe nophon, and the other earliest writers.
After that, you will be no more surprised at the plain-
ness of the scripture style ; for in them you will find al-
most the same kind of customs, the same artless narra-
tions, the same images of great things, and the same
movements, The difference between them upon com-
parison is much to the honour of the scripture. It sur-
passes them vastly in native simplicity, liveliness, and
grandeur. Homer himself never reached the sublimity
of Moses' songs ; especially the last, which all the Is-
raelitish children were to learn by heart. Never did
* EvSewM/uT'afc ' viftiv ornro; 6 ai^p (IIAATHN) EL
HYI xavofayapviGai, c5$ xat, ah^y rig rtapa fa SL-
oSog em fa inj/^cc fewer Uotot 5e xai tic, av
n tow sfinpoaQsv (lEyahov tfuj/ypa^efov xai notrtfav
fe XQLL ^yUxJts" Kat tovtov ye, ^t/lTcctfe, ctpi
fov Gxortov. LONGIITCJS, xiii.
148 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
any ode, either Greek, or Latin, come up to the lofti-
ness of the Psalms; particularly that which begins
thus ;* * The mighty God, even the Lord hath spoken,'
surpasses the utmost stretch of human invention. Neith~
er Homer nor any other poet ever equalled Isaiaht de-
scribing the majesty of God, in whose sight the ' nations
of the earth are as the small dust ; yea, less than noth-
ing and vanity ;' seeing it is * He that stretcheth out the
heavens like a curtain, and spreadeth them out as a tent
to dwell in.' Sometimes this prophet has all the sweet-
ness of an eclogue, in the smiling images he gives us of
peace ; and sometimes he soars so high as to leave
every thing below him. What is there in antiquity that
can be compared to the Lamentations of Jeremiah, when
he tenderly deplores the miseries of his country ? or to
the prophecy of Nahum, when he foresees, in spirit, the
proud Nineveh fall under the rage of an invincible ar<-
my. We fancy that we see the army, and hear the
noise of arms and chariots. Every thing is painted in
such a lively manner as strikes the imagination. The
prophet far outdoes Homer. Read likewise Daniel de-
nouncing to Belshazzar the divine vengeance ready to
overwhelm him ; and try if you can find any thing in
the most sublime originals of antiquity that can be com-
pared to those passages of sacred writ. As for the rest
of scripture, every portion of it is uniform and consistent ;
every part bears the peculiar character that becomes
it ; the history, the particular detail of laws, the descrip-
tions, the vehement and pathetic passages, the myster
ries, and prophecies, and moral discourses ; in all these
* Psal. 1. 16. T Isaiah, xl.,9 28. See chapters xi. and xxxv.
Lam. i. 1, 2, 1C, 20 ; ii. 1, 8, 11, 12, 19, 20, 21 ; iii. 39. Nahum, i. 3, 5, 6 ;
yi. l } 3, 4, 8, 9, 10; iii. 3, 13, 17, 18. Dasiel, chap. v. 1529,
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQJJENCE. 149
there appears a natural and beautiful variety.* In short,
there is as great a difference between the heathen poets,
and the prophets ; as there is between a false enthusi-
asm, and the true. The sacred writers, being truly in-
spired, do in a sensible manner express something di-
vine : while the others, striving to soar above them-
selves, always show human weakness in their loftiest
flights. The second book of Maccabees, the book of
Wisdom, especially at the end, and Ecclesiasticus in the
beginning, discover the gaudy, swelling style that the
degenerate Greeks had spread over the east ; where
their language was established with their dominion.
But it would be in vain to enlarge upon all these par-
ticulars ; it is by reading that you must discover the
truth of them.
* Any reader will observe, that there is a poetical air in the predictions of
Balaam in the xxiii. chapter of Numbers, and that there is particularly an un-
common grandeur in verse 19.
" God is not a man, that he should lie, neither the son of man, that he should
repent. Hath he said, and shall be not do it? or, hath be spoken, and shall he
not m.ake it good ?"
What is the cause of this grandeur will immediately be seen, if the sense be
preserved, and the words thrown out of interrogation :
God is not man, that he should lie, neither the son of man, that he should
repent. What he hath said, he will do ; and what he has spoke, he will make
good." The difference is so visible, that it is needless to enlarge upon it.
How artfully does St. Paul, in Acts xxvi. transfer his discourse from Feslus
to Agrippa. In ver. 26, he speaks of him in the third person. " The King
(says he) knoweth of these things, before whom I also speak freely ." Then
in the following he turns short upon him ; " King Agrippa, believest thou the
prophets ?" and immediately answers his own question,' " I know that thou be-
lievest." The smoothest eloquence, the most insinuating complaisance, could
never have made such impression on Agrippa, as this unexpected and pathetic
address.
To these instances may be added the whole xxxviit. chapter of Job; where
we behold the Almighty Creator expostulating with his creature, in terms which
express at once the majesty and perfection of the one, the meanness and frailty
of the other. There we see how vastly useful the figure of interrogation is, in
giving us a lofty idea of the Deity, while every question awes us into silence,
and iaspires a sense of our own insufficiency. Smitli's Longinus.
150 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
B. I long to set about it : we ought to apply ouiv
selves to this kind of study, more than we do.
C. I easily conceive that the Old Testament is writ-
ten with that magnificence ; and those lively images you
speak of. But you say nothing of the simplicity of
Christ's words. " .
A. That simplicity of style is entirely according to
the ancient taste. It is agreeable both to Moses and
the prophets, whose expressions Christ often uses. But
though his language be plain and familiar, it is however
figurative and sublime in many places. I could easily
show by particular instances, (if we had the books here
to consult,) that we have not a preacher of this age
who is so figurative in his most studied sermons, as
Jesus Christ was in his most popular discourses. I do
not mean those that St. John relates, where almost
every thing is sensibly divine : I speak of his most fa-
miliar discourses recorded by the other evangelists.
The apostles wrote in the same manner ; with this dif-
ference ; that Jesus Christ being master of his doctrine,
delivers it calmly. He says just what he pleases ; and
speaks, with the utmost easiness, of the heavenly king-
dom and glory, as of his father's house.* All those ex-
alted things that astonish us, were natural and familiar
to him : he is born there ; and only tells us what he
saw jt as he himself declares. On the contrary, the
apostlesf sunk under the weight of the truths that were
revealed to them ; they want words, and are not able
to express their ideas. Hence flow those digressions
* John xiv. 2. t Chap. viii. 38. | 2 Cor. xii. 2, 4, 7.
5 Yet, after all, there is often found in the apostolic manner, a sublimity of
sentiment, a pomp of description, a clearness, strength, and brevity of precept,
a closeness of appeal, a force and abruptness of interrogation, a simplicity of
words, and pathos of address, that are admirable in themselves, and worthy the
imitation of every preacher. Fordyce, Art of Preaching,
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE. 151
and obscure passages in St. Paul's writings, and those
transpositions of his thoughts, which show his mind was
transported with the abundance and greatness of the
truths that offered themselves to his attention. All this
irregularity of style shows that the Spirit of God forci-
bly guided the minds of the apostles. But notwith-
standing these little disorders of their style, every thing
in it is noble, lively, and moving. As for St. John's
Revelation, we find in it the same grandeur and enthu-
siasm that there is in the prophets. The expressions are
ofttimes the same ; and sometimes this resemblance of
style gives a mutual light to them both. You see there-
fore that the eloquence of scripture is not confined to
the books of the Old Testament ; but is likewise to be
found in the New.
C. Supposing the scripture to be eloquent, what will
you conclude from it.
A. That those who preach it, may, without scruple,
imitate, or rather borrow, its eloquence.
C. We find that preachers do choose those passages
they think most beautiful.
A. But it mangles the scripture thus to show it to
Christians only in separate passages. And however
great the beauty of such passages may be, it can never
be fully perceived, unless .one knows the connexion of
them : for, every thing in scripture is connected ; and
this coherence is the most great and wonderful thing
to be seen in the sacred writings. For want of a due
knowledge of it, preachers mistake those beautiful pas-
sages ; and put upon them what sense they please.
They content themselves with some ingenious interpre-
tations ; which, being arbitrary, have no force to per-
suade men. and to reform their manners.
152 iHALOCUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.'
B. What would you have preachers to do? Must
they use only the language of scripture ?
A. I would have them at least not think it enough
to join together a few passages of scripture that have
no real connexion. I would have them explain the
principles, and the series of the scripture doctrine; and
take the spirit, the style, and the figures of it, that all
their discourses may serve to give people a right under-
standing, and true relish of God's word. There needs
no more to make preachers eloquent ; for by doing this,
they would imitate the best model of ancient eloquence.
B. But in this case we behoved (as I said before) to
explain the several parts of scripture as they lie.
Jl. I would not confine all preachers to this. One
might make sermons upon the scripture without explain-
ing the several parts of it as they lie. But it must be
owned that preaching would be quite another thing, if,
according to ancient custom, the sacred books were thus
explained to the people in a connected, judicious man-
ner. Consider what authority a man must have who
should say nothing from his own invention; but only fol-
low and explain the thoughts and words of God. Be-
sides, he would do two things at once. By unfolding
the truths of scripture, he would explain the text ; and
accustom the people to join always the sense and the
letter together. What advantage must they not reap,
if they were used to nourish themselves with this spir-
itual bread? An audience, who had heard the chief
points of the Mosaic law explained, would be able to
receive far more benefit from an explication of the
truths of "the gospel, than the greatest part of Christians
are now. The preacher we spoke of before, has this
failing among many great qualities, that his sermons are
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 153
trains of fine reasoning about religion ; but they are not
religion itself. We apply ourselves too much to draw-
ing of moral charactersj and inveighing against the gen-
eral disorders of mankind ; and we do not sufficiently
explain the principles and precepts of the gospel.*
C. Preachers choose this way, because it is far easi-
er to declaim against the follies and disorders of man-
kind, than to explain the fundamental truths and duties
of religion judiciously. To be able to describe the cor-
ruptions of the age, they need only have some knowledge
of men and things ; and proper words to paint them
But to set the great duties of the gospel in a just light,
requires an attentive meditation and study of the holy
scriptures* There are but few preachers who have such
a solid, comprehensive knowledge of religion as can en-
* See page 125 ; the note on that page was intended to be inserted here.
If I should read to a sick person a learned lecture on the benefit of health,
and exhort him to take care to recover it, but never inquire into the nature of
his disease ; or prescribe proper niethods and medicines for the cure, he would
hardly acquiesce in me fdr his physician, or resign to me the care of his bodily
health. Nor is it a more likely way to the soul's health, to rest in mere general,
exhortations to holiness, without distinctly handling the several branches thereof,
and the opposite sins. If a man, professing physic, should administer or pre-
scribe one constant medicine for fevers, and another for consumptions, and so for
other distempers, without considering the age, constitution, strength, and way of
living of his patient ; and not vary his method and medicines as those vary, we
should hardly call this the regular practice of physic. Nor can I think this gen-
eral and undistinguished way will be more safe, or likely to answer its end, in
divinity than in medicine. Jennings.
We do not warn the man whose house is on fire, by the abstract assurance,
that " fire is dangerous ; by introducing a third person to say, " he is in danger ;"
by continually adverting to those noble public institutions, the general fire in-
surance companies. Nor must the delegated apostle of Christianity fail to dis-
criminate, to individualize, to strike home, to draw the line between the form
and spirit of religion ; to show, that the best church cannot of itself sanctify those,
who enter it ; 'to speak,' as old Baxter says, ' like a dying man, to dying men ;'
to ' warn, rebuke, exhort,' like one who expects to meet his congregation next
at the bar of God. Christian Observer.
20
154 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
able them to explain it clearly to others. Nay, there
are some who make pretty discourses ; and yet could not
catechise the people, and far less make a good homily.
*/#. Very true ; it is here that our preachers are most
defective. Most of their fine sermons contain only phi-
losophical reasonings. Sometimes they preposterously
quote scripture only for the sake of decency or ornament ?
and it is not then regarded as the word of God 5 but as
the invention of men.
C. You will grant, I hope, that the labours of such
men tend to make void the cross of Christ.
A. \ give them up; and contend only for the eloquence
of scripture which evangelical preachers ought to imitate.
So .that we are agreed on this point ; provided you will
not excuse some zealous preachers, who, under pretence
of apostolical simplicity, do not effectually study either
the doctrine of scripture, or the powerful manner of per-
. suasion that we are taught there. They imagine that
they need only bawl, and speak often of hell and the
devil. Now without doubt a preacher ought to affect
people by strong, and sometimes even by terrible images^
tjut it is from the scripture that he should learn to make
powerful impressions. There he may clearly discover
the way to make sermons plain and popular, without los-
ing the force and dignity they ought always to have.
For want of this knowledge a preacher oftentimes doth
but stun and frighten people ; so that they remember
but few clear notions ; and even the impressions of ter-
ror they received are not lasting. This mistaken sim-
plicity that some affect,, h too often a cloak for ignorance;
and at best it is such an unedifying manner of address?
as cannot be acceptable either to God or men. Nothing-
can excuse such homely preachers, but the sincerity of
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 155
their intentions. They ought to have studied and med-
itated much upon the word of God, before they under-
took to preach. A priest who understands the scripture
fully, and has the gift of speaking, supported hy the au-
thority of his function, and of a good life, might make
excellent discourses without great preparation. For one
speaks easily of such truths as make a clear and strong
impression on his mind. Now above all things, such a
subject as religion must furnish exalted thoughts ; and
excite the noblest sentiments ; and this is the design of
eloquence. But a preacher ought to speak to his audi-
ence as a father would talk to his children, with an af-
fectionate tenderness ;* and not like a declaimer, pro-
* In the most awful denunciations of the divine displeasure, an air of unaf-
fected tenderness should be preserved, that while with unsparing fidelity we de-
clare the whole counsel of God, it may appear we are actuated fay a genuine
spirit of compassion. A hard and unfeeling manner of denouncing the threaten-
ings of the word of God, is not only barbarous and inhuman, but calculated, by
inspiring disgust, to rob them of all their efficacy. If the awful part of our mes-
sage, which may be stiled the burden of the Lord, ever fall with due weight oh
our hearers, it will be when it is delivered with a trembling Hand and faultering
lips ; and we may then expect them to realize its solemn import, when they
perceive that we ourselves are ready to sink under it. Of whom I have told you
before, said St. Paul, and now tell you weeping, that they are the enemies of the
cross of Christ What force does that affecting declaration derive from these
tears I An affectionate manner insinuates itself into the heart, renders it soft and
pliable, and disposes it to imbibe the sentiments and follow the impulse of the
speaker. Whoever has attended to the effect of addresses from the pulpit, must
have perceived how much of their impression depends upon this quality, which
gives to sentiments comparatively trite, a power over the mind beyond what the
most striking and original conceptions possess without it.
Hall on the discouragements and supports of the Christian ministry.
There is another strain of preaching, which, though it wears the garb of zeal,
is seldom a proof of any power but the power of self; I mean angry and scolding
preaching. The Gospel is a benevolent- scheme, and whoever speaks in the pow-
er of it, will assuredly speak in love. In the moat faithful rebukes of sin, in the
most solemn declarations of God's displeasure against it, a preacher may give
evidence of a disposition of good-will and compassion to sinners, and assuredly
will, if he speaks under the influence of the power of truth. If we can indulge
invective and bitterness in the pulpit, we know not what spirit we are of; we
156 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE,
nouncing an harangue with stiffness, and an affected del-
icacy. It were to he wished indeed that, generally
speaking, none were allowed to feed the Christian flocks
hut their respective shepherds, who ought best to know
their wants. In order to this, none should be chosen for
pastors, but such as have the gift of preaching. The
neglect of this occasions two evils ; one is, that dumb
pastors, and such as speak without abilities, are little es-
teemed. Another evil is, that the function of voluntary
preachers allures many vain, ambitious spirits, that en-
deavour to distinguish themselves this way. You know
that in former ages the ministry of the word was reserv-
ed for the bishops ; especially in the western church.
You must have heard of St. Austin's case ; that, contra-
ry to the established rule, he was obliged to preach
while he was only a presbyter ; because that Valerius
his bishop and predecessor, was a stranger who could
not talk easily ; this was the beginning o.f that custom
in the western parts. In the east, priests sooner began
to preach ; as appears from St. Chrysostom's sermons,
which he made at Antioch, when he was only a pres-
byter. ' '
C. I grant that generally speaking the office of preach-
ing should be reserved for the parochial clergy. This
would be the way to restore to the pulpit that simplicity
and dignity that ought to adorn it. For if pastors joined
are but gratifying our own evil tempers, under the pretence of a concern for the
cause of God and truth. A preacher of this character, instead of resembling a
priest bearing in his censer hallowed fire taken from God's altar, may be com-
pared to the madman described in the Proverbs, who scattereth at random fire-
brands, and arrows, and death, and saith, Am not I in sport ? Such persons may-
applaud their own faithfulness and courage, and think it a great attainment that
they can so easily and constantly set their congregation at defiance ; but they
must not expect to be useful, so long as it remains a truth, that the wrath of
worketh not the righteousness of God. NEWTOST.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE.
the knowledge of the scriptures to their experience in the
ministerial function, and the conduct of souls ; they would
speak in such a way as is best adapted to the wants of
their flocks. Whereas those preachers who give up
themselves chiefly to study and speculation, are less able
to obviate people's prejudices and mistakes ; they do not
suit their discourses to vulgar capacities ; and insist chief-
ly on such general points as do not instruct nor affect
men ; to say nothing of the weight and influence that
the shepherd's own voice must have among his flock,
above a stranger's.. These, methinks, are convincing
reasons for preferring a pastor's sermons before other
people's. Of what use are so many young preachers,
without experience, without knowledge, and without pi-
ety ? It were better to have fewer sermons, and more
judicious ones.
B. But there are many priests who are not pastors,
and who preach with great success. How many persons
are there of the religious orders, who fill the pulpit to
advantage ?
0. I own there are many ; and such men ought to
be made pastors of parishes ; and even be constrained
to undertake the care of souls. Were not anchorets of
pld forced from their beloved solitude, and raised to pub-
lic stations, that the light of their piety might shine in
the church, and edify the faithful ?
A. But it does not belong to us to regulate, the disci-
pline of the church. Every age has its proper customs.
-"as the circumstances of things require. Let us show a
regard to whatever the church tolerates ; and, without
indulging a censorious humour, let us finish our character
of a worthy preacher.
C. What you have said already gives me, I think, an
exact idea of it.
158 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE,
. Let us hear then what you reckon necessary to
make a complete preacher.
C. I think that he ought to have studied solidly, dur-
ing his younger days, whatever is most useful in the po-
etry and eloquence of the ancients."*
A. That is not necessary. It is true, when one has
finished such studies successfully, they may be of use to
him. even towards a right understanding of the scrip-
tures : as St. Paul has shown in a treatise he composed
on this very subject. But after all, this sort of study is
rather useful than necessary. In the first ages of the
church, the clergy found a want of this kind of learning.
Those indeed who had applied themselves to it, in their
youth, turned it to the service of religion, when they
became pastors: but such as had neglected these studies
before, were not permitted to follow them, when they
had once engaged themselves in the study of the sacred
.< writings ; which were then reckoned to, be sufficient.
Hence came that passage in the Apostolical Constitu-
tions,! which exhorts Christians not to read the heathen
authors. ' If you want history, (says the book,) or laws,
or moral precepts, or eloquence, or poetry, you will find
them all in the scriptures.' In effect we have already
seen that it is needless to seek elsewhere, for any thing
that is necessary to form our taste and judgment of true
eloquence. St. Austin says that the smaller stock we
have of other learning, we ought so much the more to
* The Greek and Roman authors have a spirit in them, a force, both of
thought and expression, that latter ages have not been able to imitate ; Bu-
chanan only excepted ; in whom, more particularly in his. Psalms, there is a
beauty, and life, an exactness as well as a liberty, that cannot be imitated, and
scarce enough commended.
Discourse of ike pastoral cnre. ch. viii.
f B. i. c. 6.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 159
enrich ourselves out of that sacred treasure ; and that
seeing our notions are too scanty to express divine things
in a proper way, we have need to exalt and improve
our knowledge, by the authority of Scripture , and our
language, by the dignity of its expressions. But I ask
your pardon for interrupting you. Go on, Sir, if you
please.
C. Well then ; let us be content with the sufficien-
cy of scripture. But shall we not add the fathers ?
A. Without doubt ; they are the channels of tradi-
tion. It is by their writings that we learn the manner
in which the church interpreted the scripture in., all
ages.
C. But are preachers obliged to explain every pas-
sage of scripture according to the interpretations that
the fathers have given us. We find that one father
gives a spiritual or mystical sense ; and another gives
a literal one. Now which must we choose ? for there
would be no end of mentioning them all.
A. When I affirm that we ought to interpret the
scripture according to the doctrine of the fathers ; I
mean, their constant and uniform doctrine. They fre-
quently gave pious interpretations that differed very
much from the literal sense ; and were not founded on
the prophetical allusions, and the mysterious doctrines
of religion. Now seeing these interpretations are arbi-
trary, we are not obliged to follow them ; ' seeing they
did not follow one another.' But in those places where
they explain the sentiments of the church concerning
points of faith or practice ; it is not allowable to explain
the scripture in a sense contrary to the doctrine of the
fathers. This is the authority that we ought to ascribe
to them.
160 DIALOGUES CONCEllNltfG ELOQUENCE;
C. This seems clear enough. I would therefore
have a clergyman (before he begin to preach) be thor-
oughly acquainted with the doctrine of the fathers, that
he may follow it. I would even have him study the
principles they laid down for their conduct ; their rules
of moderation ; and their method of instruction.
A. Right ; they are our masters. They had an ex-
alted genius : they had great and pious. souls, full of he-
roical sentiments. They had a' singular knowledge of
the tempers and manners of men ; and acquired a great
repute ; and a very easy way of preaching; We even
find that many of them were very polite^ and knew
whatever is decent, either in writing or speaking in pub-
lic ; and what is handsome both in familiar conversation,
and in discharging the common duties of life. Doubt-
less all this must have conduced to render them elo-
quent ; and fit to gain upon people's minds. Accord-
ingly we find in their writings a politeness not only of
language, but of sentiments and manners ; which is not
to be seen in the writers of the following ages. This
just taste and discernment, (which agrees perfectly well
with simplicity, and rendered their persons acceptable, and
their behaviour engaging) was highly serviceable to re-
ligion. And in this point we can scarce imitate them
enough. So that after the scriptures, the knowledge of
the fathers will help a preacher to compose good ser-
mons*
C. When one has laid such a solid foundation, and
edified the church by his exemplary virtues ; he would
then be fit to explain the gospel with great authority,
and good effect. For by familiar instructions, and use-
ful conferences, (to which we suppose him to have been
aucustomed betimes,) he must have attained a sufficient
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 1 6 1
freedom and easiness of speaking. Now if such pastors
applied themselves to all the particular duties of their
function, as administering the sacraments ; directing pi-
ous souls ; and comforting afflicted, or dying persons - ?
it is certain they could not have much time to make
elaborate sermons, and learn them word for word.
' The mouth behoved to speak from the abundance of
the heart ;'* and communicate to the people the fulness
of gospel-knowledge, and the affecting sentiments of the
preacher. As for what you said yesterday, about getting
sermons by heart, I had the curiosity to seek out a passage
in St. Austin that I had read before : it is to this purpose :
* He thinks that a preacher ought to speak in a more
plain and sensible manner than other people : for, seeing
custom and decelfcy will not permit his hearers to ask
him any questions ; he should be afraid.of not adapting
his discourse to their capacity. WhWrefore,' says he,
* they, who get their sermons by heart, word for word,
and so cannot repeat and explain a truth till they see
that their hearers understand it, must lose one great end
and benefit of preaching.' You see by this, Sir, that St.
Austin only prepared his sabject, without burdening his
memory with all the words of his sermons. Though the
precepts of true eloquence should require more ; yet the
rules of the gospel-ministry will not permit us to go far-
ther. As for my own part, I have been long of your
opinion concerning this matter ; because of the many
pressing necessities in. the Christian church, that require
a pastor's continual application. While a priest, who
ought to be * a man of God,t thoroughly furnished unto
all good works,' should be diligent in rooting out igno-
raiice and offences from the field of the church ; I think
* Matth. xii. 34. t 2 Tim. iii. 17.
21
IjS2 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
it unworthy of him to waste his time in his closet, in
smoothing of periods ; giving delicate touches to his de-
scriptions ; and inventing quaint divisions. When one
falls into the method and employment of these pretty
preachers, he can have no time to do any thing else ; he
applies himself to no other business, or useful kind of
study : hay, to refresh himself, he is oftentimes forced
to preach the same sermons over and over again. But
what kind of eloquence can a preacher attend to, when
his hearers know beforehand all the expressions, and pa-
thetic figures he will use. Thi& is a likely way indeed,
to surprise and astonish ; to soften, and move, and per-
suade them. This must be a strange manner of conceal-
ing one's art j and of letting nature speak. To tell you
freely, Sir, this gives me great offence! What ! shall a
dispenser of the divine mysteries be an idle declaimer,
jealous of his reputation, and fond of vain pomp ?* Shall
he not dare to speak of God to his people, without hav-
ing ranged all his words, and learned his lesson by heart
like a school boy?
/?. I am very much pleased with your zeaL What
you say is true. But we must not however inveigh
against this abuse with too much violence : for we ought
to show a regard to persons of worth and piety, who, out
of deference to custom, or being prepossessed by exam-
ple, have, with a good design, fallen into the method that
* Sed his ornatus (repetam enim) virilis, fortia et sanctus sit non debet
quisquam ubi maxima rerum momenta versantur, de verbis esse sollicitus prima
virtus est vitio carere. Igitur ante omnia, ne speremus ornalam orationem fore,
quae probabilis non erit. Probabile autem, Cicero id genus dicit, quod non plus,
minusve est qua/n decet. Non quia comi expolirique non debeat ; nam et haec
ornatus pars est ; sed quia vitium est, ubique quod minium est. Itaque vult
csse auctoritatem et pondus in verbis : sententias vel graves, vel aptas opinioni-
bus hominum ac moribus.
Qm'nftV. lib. viii. c. 3,
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 163
you justly censure. But I am ashamed to interrupt you
so often. Go on, I beseech you.
C. I would have a preacher explain the whole plan
of religion ; and unfold every part of it, in the most in-
telligible manner; by showing the primitive institution
of things 5 and pointing out the sequel and tradition of
them : that, by showing the origin and establishment of
religion, he might destroy the objections of unbelievers,
without offering to attack them openly : lest he should
thereby lay a stumbling block in the way of illiterate,
well meaning Christians.*
* Particular care ought to be taken in expounding the scriptures to the peo-
ple, not to appear .over-learned and over-critical in one's explications. There
is no occasion to obtrude on an audience, as some do, all the jarring interpreta-
tions given by different commentators, of which it is much better that the people
should remain ignorant, than that they should be apprized. For this knowledge
can serve no other purpose, than to distract their thoughts and perplex their
judgment. Before you begin to build, it is necessary to remove such impedi-
ments, as lie directly in your way ; but you could not account him other than a
very foolish builder, who should first collect a deal of rubbish, which was not in
his way, and consequently could not have obstructed his work, that he might
have the pleasure and merit of removing it. And do the fantastic, absurd, and
contradictory glosses of commentators deserve a better name than rubbish ? No,
surely. But if such absurd glosses are unknown to your congregation, they are
rubbish which lies not in your way. No interpretation therefore or gloss should
ever be mentioned in order to be refuted, unless it be such as the words them-
selves on a superficial view, might seem to countenance, or such as is generally
known to the people to be put upon them by some interpreters, or sects of Chris-
tians. Where a false gloss cannot be reasonably supposed to be either known
or thought of by the audience, it is in the preacher worse, than being idly ostenta-
tious of his learning, to'introduce such erroneous gloss or comment. And as to an
excess of criticism in this exercise, it ought also doubtless carefully to be avoid-
ed. We must always remember the difference between a church and a college.
In most Christian congregations there are very few, if any, linguists. I do not
say that in our lectures we ought never to mention the original or recur to it.
Justice to the passage we explain may sometimes require it. Nor is it necessa-
ry, that our translators should be deemed infallible even by the multitude. It is
enough, that we consider as the pure dictates of the Spirit those intimations,
with which the prophets and apostles were inspired. But then, on the other
hand, it is neither modest nor prudent in the preacher, especially if a young man,
to be at every turn censuring the translators, and pretending to mend their vrr-
164 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
A, That is very right. The best way of proving the
truth of religion, is to explain it justly ; for it carries its
own evidence along with it, when we represent it in its
native purity. All other proofs that are not drawn from
the very foundation of religion itself, and the manner of
its propagation, are but foreign to it. Thus, for instance,
the best proof of the creation of the world, of the del-
uge, and the miracles of Moses, may be drawn from the
nature of those miracles ; and the artless, impartial man-
ner in which the Mosaic history is written. A wise, un-
prejudiced person needs only to read it, to be fully con-
vinced of its truth.
cion. It is not modest, as they, over whom the corrector assumes a superiority,
are allowed on all hands to have been men of eminent talents and erudition.
And it is not prudent, as this practice never fails to produce in the minds of the
people a Avant of confidence in their Bible, which tends greatly to lessen its au-
thority. Therefore, though I am by no means for ascribing infallibility to any
human expositors, propriety requires, that we should neither too often, nor toe ,
abruptly tax with blundering, before such a promiscuous audience as our con-
gregations commonly are, men of so respectable memory. Manly freedom of
inquiry, becoming a protestant, becoming a Briton, tempered with that decent
reserve which suits the humble Christian, will guard the judicious against both
extremes, an overweaning conceit of his own abilities, and an implicit faith in
those of others. And indeed in regard to every thing, which may be introduced
either in the way of criticism or comment, it ought ever to be remembered, that
it is not enough, that such an observation is just, that such an interpretation hath
actually been given, or that such an opinion hath been maintained ; the previous
inquiry, which the preacher ought to make oy himself is, whether it be of any
consequence to the people to be informed of the observation, comment, or opin-
ion. This inquiry impartially made will prove a check against the immoder-
ate indulgence of what is perhaps the natural bent of his own genius, whether it
be to critical or controversial disquisition, and which it is not always easy for
youth, commonly impetuous and opinionative, duly to restrain. If on other oc-
casions, more especially on this, the apostolical admonition ought to be sacredly
observed, that " nothing proceed out of the speaker's mouth, but that which is
good to the use of edifying, that it may minister grace to the hearers." But
for our direction in this kind of discernment, no precepts, "it must be acknow-
ledged, will suffice. A fund of good sense is absolutely necessary, enlightened
by a knowledge of mankind. In this, ,as in every other kind of composition, the
maxim of the poet invariably holds,
Scribendi recte sapere est principium et fons.
Campbell an pulpit eloquence*
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 165
C. I would likewise have a preacher assiduously ex-
plain to the people in a connected train not only all the
particular precepts and mysteries of the gospel, but like-
wise the origin and institution of the sacraments ; the
traditions, discipline, the liturgy, and ceremonies of the
church. By these instructions he would guard the faith-
ful against the objections of heretics ; and enable them
to give an account of their faith ; and even to aifect such
heretics as are not obstinate-: he would strengthen, peo-
ple's faith, give them an exalted notion of religion; and
make them receive some edification and benefit from
what they see in the church. Whereas with the super-
ficial instruction that is generally given them at present,
they comprehend little or nothing of what they see ; and
have but a very confused idea of what they hear from
the preacher. It is chiefly for the sake of this connect-
ed scheme of instruction that I would have fixed persons,
such as pastors, to preach in every parish. I have of-
ten observed that there is no art, nor science, that is not
taught coherently by principles and method, in a con-
nected train of instructions. Religion is the only thing
that is not taught thus to Christians. In their childhood
o
they have a little, dry catechism put into their hands,
which they learn by rote, without understanding the sense
of it. And after that, they have no other instruction but
what they can gather from sermons upon unconnected,
general subjects. I would therefore, (as you said) have
preachers teach people the first principles of their relig-
ion ; and, by a due method, lead them on to the highest
mysteries of it.
Jl. .That wa's the ancient way. They began with 1
catechising-; after which, pastors taught their people the
several doctrines of the gospel, in a connected train of
166 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
homilies. This instructed Christians fully in the word of
God : you know St. Austin's book, of catechising the ig-
norant ;' and St. Clement's tract, which he composed, to
show the heathen whom he converted what were the
doctrines and manners of the Christian philosophy. In
those days the greatest men were employed in these cat-
echetical instructions ; and accordingly they produced
such wonderful effects, as seem quite incredible to us.
C. In fine, I would hate every preacher make such
sermons as should not be too troublesome to him ; that
so he might be able to preach often. They ought there-
fore to be short ; that without fatiguing himself or wea-
rying the people he might preach every Sunday after
the gospel. As far as we can judge, those aged bishops
who lived in former times, and had constant labours to
employ them, did not make such a stir as our modern
preachers do in talking to the people in the midst of di-
vine service ; which the bishops themselves read solemn-
ly every Lord's day.* A preacher now-a-days gets little
credit unless he comes out of the pulpit sweating and
breathless ; and unable to do any thing the rest of the
day. The bishop's upper vestment, (which was not then
* A clergyman must bring his mind to an inward and feeling sense of those
things that are prayed for in our offices : this will make him pronounce them with
an equal measure of gravity and affection ; and with a due slowness and empha-
ais. I do not love the theatrical way of the church of Rome, in which it is a
great study, and a long practice, to learn in every one of their offices, how they
ought to compose their looks, gesture, and voice ; yet a light wandering of the
eyes, and a hasty running through the prayers, are things highly unbecoming;
they very much lesson the majesty of our worship ; and give our enemies advan-
tage to call it dead and formal; when they see plainly that he who officiates, is
dead and formal in it. A deep sense of the things prayed for, a true recollec-
tion and attention of spirit, and a holy earnestness 'of soul, will give a composure
to the look, and a weight to the pronunciation, that will be tempered between
affectation on the one hand, and levity on the other.
Discourse of the.pasloral care, cli. viii.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 167
opened at the shoulders as it is now, but hung equally
down on all sides,) probably hindered him from moving
his arms, as some preachers do. So that as their sermons
were short, so their action must have been grave and
moderate. Now, Sir, is not all this agreeable to your
principles ? is not this the idea you gave us of good
preaching ?
Jl. It is not mine : it is the current notion of all an-
tiquity. The farther I inquire into this matter, the more
I am convinced that the ancient form of sermons was the
most perfect. The primitive pastors were great men :
they were not only very holy, but they had a cpmplete,
clear knowledge of religion, and of the best way to per-
suade men of its truth : and they took care to regulate'
all the circumstances of it. There is a great deal of
wisdom, hidden under this air of simplicity : and. we ought
not to believe that a better method could have been af-
terwards found out. You have set this whole matter in
the best light, and have left me nothing to add : indeed
you have explained my thoughts better than I should
have done myself.
B. You magnify the eloquence, and the sermons of
the fathers mightily.
A. I do not think that I commend them too much,
B.. I am surprised to see, that after you have been so
severe against those orators, who mix turns of wit with
their discourses, you should be so indulgent to the fath-
ers, whose writings are full of jingling antitheses, and
quibbles, entirely contrary to all your rules. I wish you
would be consistent with yourself. Pray, Sir, unfold all
this to us. Particularly, what do you think of Tertul-
lian ?
d. There are many excellent things in him. The
168 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
loftiness of his sentiments is oftentimes admirable. Be-
sides, he should be read for the sake of some principles
concerning tradition, some historical facts, and the disci-
pline of his time. But as for his style, I do not pretend
to justify it. He has many false and obscure notions,
many harsh and perplexed metaphors ; and the gener-
ality of readers are most fond of his faults. He has
spoiled many preachers.* For, the desire of saying
something that is singular leads them to study his works ;t
* One of the greatest and most remarkable proofs of the strong influence that
some imaginations have over others, is the power that some others have to per-
suade, without any proof. For example, the turn of words that we find in Ter-
tullian, Seneca, Montaigne, and some other authors, has so many charms, and
so much lustre, that they dazzle most readers their words, however insignifi-
cant, have more force than the reasons of other people I protest I have a great
value for some of Tertullian's works ; and chiefly for his .Apology against the
Gentiles ; his book of Prescriptions against heretics ; and for some passages of
Seneca ; though I hare very little esteem for Montaigne. Tertullian was indeed
a man of .great learning ; but he had more memory than judgment the regard
he shewed to the visions of Montanus, and his prophetesses, is an unquestionable
proof of his weak judgment. The disorder of his imagination sensibly appears
in the heat, the transports, and enthusiastic flights he falls into, upon trifling sub-
jects what could he infer from his pompous descriptions of the changes that
happen in the world? Or how could they justify his laying aside his usual dress
to wear the philosophical cloak ? The moon has different phases ; the year has
several seasons ; the fields change their appearance in summer and winter ;
whole provinces are drowned by inundations, or swallowed up by earthquakes
in fine, all nature is subject to changes ; therefore he had reason to wear the
cloak rather than the common robe I nothing can excuse the silly argument*
and wild fancies of this author, who, in several others of his works, as well as in
that de Pallia, says every thing that comes into his head, if it be a far fetched
conceit, or a bold expression ; by which he hoped to show the vigour, (we must
rather call it, the disorder) of his imagination. Malebranche^s recherche de la
vtrite. Liv. ii. p. 3. c. 3.
t Eccentricity is sometimes found connected with genius, but it does not coa-
lesce with true wisdom. Hence men of the first order of intellect, have never
betrayed it ; and hence also men of secondary talents drop it as they grow
wiser ; and are satisfied to found their consequence on real and solid excellency,
not on peculiarity and extravagance. They are content to awaken regard, and
obtain applause by the rectitude and gracefulness of their going, rather than to
make passengers stare and laugh by leaping over the wall or stumbling along the
fclALOGt/ES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENC& 169
and his uncommon pompous style dazzles them. We
must, therefore, beware of imitating his thoughts or ex-
pressionsj and only pick out his noble sentiments, and
the knowledge of antiquity.
B. What say you of St. Cyprian ? Is not his style
too swelling ?
A. I think it is ; and it could scarce be otherwise in
his age and country. But though his language has a
tang of the African roughness, and the bombast which
prevailed in his days ; yet there is great force and elo-
quence in it. Every where we see a great soul, who
expresseth his sentiments in a very noble, moving man-
ner. In some places of his works we find affected orna-
ments ;* especially in his epistle to Donatus ; which St.
Austin quotes, however, as a letter full of eloquence. He
says, that God permitted those strokes of vain oratory
to fall from St. Cyprian's pen, to show posterity how
much the spirit of Christian simplicity had, in his follow-
ing works, retrenched the superfluous ornaments of his
style ; and reduced it within the bounds of a grave and
modest eloquence. This, says St. Austin, is the distin-
road. True greatness is serious ; trifling is beneath its dignity. We are more
indebted to the regular, sober, constant course of the sun, than to the glare of
"the comet ; the one indeed occupies our papers, but the other enriches our fields
and gardens ; we gaze at the strangeness of the one, but we live by the influ-
of the other. Jay.
* Locus enim cum die convenit, et mulcendis sensibus, ac fovendis^ ad lenes
auras blandientis autumn! hortorura facies amoana consentit. Hie jucundum
sermonibus diem ducere, et studentibus fabulis in divina prsecepta conscientiam
pectoris erudire. Ac ne colloquium nostrum arbiter profanus impediat, autxla-
mor intemperans families strepentis obtundat, petamus hanc sedem. Dant seces-
sum vicina secreta, ubi dum erratici palmitum lapsus nexibus pendulis per arun-
dines bajulus repunt, viteam porticum frondea tecta fecerunt ; bene hie studia in
aufes damus ; ct dum in arbores, et in vites quas videmus, oblectante prospectu,
oculos amrenamus, animum simul et auditus instruit, et pascit obtutus.
Cypr. Ad Donat. Episl.
170 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
guishing character of all the Letters which St. Cyprian
wrote afterwards ; which we may safely admire and
imitate, as being written according to the severest rules
of religion ; though we cannot hope to come up to them
without a great application. In fine ; though his letter
to Donatus, even in St. Austin's opinion, be too elabo-
rately adorned ; it deserves, however, to be called elo-
quent. For, notwithstanding its many rhetorical embel-
lishments, we cannot but perceive that a great part of
the epistle is very serious and lively ; and most proper
to give Donatus a noble idea of Christianity. In those
passages where he is very earnest, he neglects all turns
of wit, and falls into a sublime and vehement strain.
B. But what do you think of St. Austin ? Is he not
the most jingling quibbler that ever wrote ?* Will you
defend him ?
A. No; I cannot vindicate him in that. It was the
reigning fault of his time ; to which his quick, lively
fancy naturally inclined him. This shows that he was
not a perfect orator. But notwithstanding this defect,
he had a great talent for persuasion. He reasoned gen-
* Misi nuncios meos omnes et sensus ihteviores, ut quaererem te, et non inve-
ni, quia male quserebam. Video enim, lux mea, Deus qui illuminasti me, quia
te per illos quserebam quia tu es intus, et tamen ipsi ubi intraveris, nescive-
runt et tamen cam Deum meum qusero, qusero nihilomious quandam lucem,
quam non capit oculus ; quandam vocem super omnem vocem, quam non capit
auris ; quendam odorem super omnem odorem, quern non capit naris ; quendam
dulcorem superomnem dulcorsm, quern non capit gestus ; quendam amplcxum
super omnem amplexum, quern non capit tactus. Ista lux quidem fulget ubi
locus non capit ; ista vox sonat, ubi spiritus non rapit ; odor iste redolet, ubi
flatus, non spargit ; sapor iste sapit ubi non est edacitas ; amplexus iste tangitur,
ubi non divellitur. Aug. Solil. }. 31.
O dies praeclara etpulchra, nesciens vesperum, non habens. occasum ubi non
erit hostis impugnans, neque ulla illecebra, sed summa et oerla securitas, secu-
ra tranquillitas, et tranquilla jocunditas, jocunda felicitas, fcelix aeternitas, seter-
na beatitude, et beata Trinitas, et Trinitatis unitas, et unitatis Deitas, et Dei-
tatis beata visio, qua; est gaudium Domini Dei tui. Aug. Solil. {. 35.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE, 171
erally with great force ; and he is full of noble notions.
He knew the heart of man entirely well, and was so
polite, that he carefully observed the strictest decency
iii all his discourses. In short he expressed himself al-
most always in a pathetic, gentle, ipsinuating manner.
Now ought not the fault we observe in so great a man
to be forgiven ?
C. I must own there is one thing in him that I never
observed in any other writer : I mean, that he has a
moving way, even when he quibbles. None, of his
works are more full of jingling turns, than his confessions,
and soliloquies ; and yet we must ,own they are tender,*
and apt to affect the reader.
A. It is because he checks the turns of his fancy as
much as he can. by the ingenuous simplicity of his pious",
affecting sentiments. All his works plainly show his
love of God. He was not only conscious of it ; but knew
well how to express to others the strong sense he had
of it. Now this tender, affecting way, is a part of elo-
quence. But we see besides that St. Austin knew ex-
actly all the essential rules of it. He tells ust that a
persuasive discourse must be simple and natural ; that
art must not appear in it ; and that if it be too fine and
elaborate, it puts the hearers upon their guard.f To
* Quemadmodum desiderat cervus ad fontes aquarum, it& desiderat anima
mea ad te, Deus. Sitivit anima mea ad te Deum, fontem vivum ; quando ve-
niam et apparebo ante faciem tuam ? O fons vitas, vena aquarum viventium ;
quando veniam ad aquas dulcedinis tnse de terra deserta, invia et inaquosa ; ut
videam virtutem tuam, et gloriam tuam, et saliem ex aquis misericordise tuae
silim meam > sitio, Domine, fons vita? es, salia me. Sitio, Domine, sitio te
Deum vivum ; O quando veniam et apparebo, Domine, ante faciem tnam ?
Aug. Solil. cap. xxxv.
t De doct. Chr. 1, 2.
: " There ie a false -eloquence, in being ambitious to say every thing with
spirit, and turn all things with delicacy. If you would attain to true eloquence,
you must first lay aside the passion for appearing eloquent. So long as you have
vain, ambitious views, you will never preach well, and you will never become
truly eloquent." Ostervald's Lect. ir.
172 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
*
this purpose he applies these words, which you cannot
but remember, 6 qui sophistice loquitur odibilis est.' He
talks likewise very judiciously of the mixing different
kinds of style in a discourse ; of ranging the sev-
eral parts of it in such a manner as to make it in-
crease gradually in strength and evidence; of the neces-
sity of being plain and familiar, even as to the tones of
the voice, and our actions in particular passages ; though
every thing we say should still have a dignity when we
preach religion. In fine, he likewise shows the way to
awaken and move people. These are St. Austin's no-
tions of eloquence. But if you would see with how
much art he. actually influenced people's minds, and with
what address he moved their passions, according to the
true design of eloquence ; you must read the account he
gives of a discourse he made to the people of Cassarea,
in Mauritania, in order to abolish a barbarous practice.
It seems there prevailed among them an ancient custom,
which they had carried to a monstrous pitch of cru-
elty. His business therefore was to draw off the peo-
ple from a spectacle that delighted them extremely.
Judge now what a difficult enterprise this was. However,
he tells us that after he had talked to them for some
time, they spake aloud and applauded him.
But he concluded that his discourse had not persuaded
them, seeing they amused themselves in commending
him. He thought he had done nothing while he only
raised delight and admiration in his hearers; nor did he
begin to hope for any good effect from his discourse, till
he saw them weep. " In effect," says he, " the people
were at length prevailed on to give up this delightful
spectacle ; nor has it been renewed these eight years."
Is not St. Austin then a true orator ? Have we any
preachers that are able to talk so powerfully now ? AF
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQ.UENCE.
for St. Jerom, he has some faults in his style : but his
expressions are manly and great. He is not regular ;
but he is far more eloquent than most of those who val-
ue themselves upon their oratory. We should judge
like mere grammarians if we examined only the -style
and language of the fathers. You know there is a great
difference between eloquence, and what we call ele-
gance, or purity, of style. St. Ambrose likewise fell in-
to the fashionable defects of his time ; and gives his
discourse such ornaments as were then in vogue. Per-
haps these great men, (who had higher views than the
common rules of rhetoric,) conformed themselves to the
prevailing taste of the age they lived in, that they might
the better insinuate the truths of religion upon, people's
minds, by engaging them to hear the word of God with
pleasure. But notwithstanding the puns and quibbles
that St. Ambrose sometimes uses, we see that he wrote
to Theodosius with an inimitable force and persuasion.
How much tenderness does he express when he speaks
of the death of his brother Satyrus ? In the Roman
breviary we have a discourse of his, concerning John
the Baptist's head, which, he says, Herod respected and
dreaded, even after his death. If you observe that dis-
course, you will find the end of it very sublime. St.
Leo's style is swelling, but truly noble. Pope Gregory
lived still in a worse age : and yet he wrote several
things with much strength and dignity. We ought to
distinguish those failings into which the degeneracy of
arts and learning led these great men, in common with
other writers of their several ages ; and at the same
time observe what their genius and sentiments furnish-
ed them with, to persuade their hearers.
C. But do you think then that the taste of eloquence
1 74 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
was quite lost in those ages that were so happy for re-
ligion?
Ji. Yes : within a little time after the reign of Au-
gustus, eloquence, and the Latin tongue began to de-
cline apace. The fathers did not live till after this cor-
ruption ; so that we must not look on them as complete
models. We must even acknowledge that most of the
sermons they have left us are composed with less skill
and force, than their other works. When I showed you
from the testimony of the fathers that the scripture is
eloquent ; (which you seemed to believe upon their
credit ;) I knew very well that the oratory of these
witnesses, is much inferior to that of sacred writings
themselves. But there are some persons of such a de-
praved taste, that they cannot relish the beauties of
Isaiah ; and yet they will admire Chrysologus ; in whom,
(notwithstanding his fine name,) there is little to be
found besides abundance of evangelical piety couched
under numberless quibbles, and low witticisms. In the
east, the just way of speaking and writing was better
preserved; and the Greek tongue continued for some
time, almost in its ancient purity. St. Chrysostom spake
it very well. His style, you know, is copious ; but he
did not study false ornaments. All his discourse tends
to persuasion ; he placed every thing with judgment ;
and was well acquainted with the holy scripture, and
the manners of men. He entered into their hearts ; and
rendered things familiarly sensible to them. He had
sublime and solid notions ; and is sometimes very affect-
ing. Upon the whole, we must own he is a great orator.*
* What are you doing, wicked wretch ? You require an oath on the holy
table ; and you sacrifice cruelly your brother on the same altar where Jesus
Christ, who sacrificed himself for you, lies ? Thieves assassinate, but then they
do it in secret ; but you, in presence of the church, our common parent, murder
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOOJJENCE. 175
St. Gregory Nazianzen is more concise, and more poetic-
al ; but not quite so persuasive. And yet he has sever-
al moving passages; particularly in his funeral oration
upon his brother St. Basil ; and in his last discourse at
taking leave of Constantinople. St. Basil is grave, sen-
tentious, and rigid, even in his style. He had meditat-
ed profoundly on all the truths of the gospel ; he knew
exactly all the disorders and weaknesses of human nature ;
and he had a great sagacity in the conduct of souls-;
There is nothing more eloquent than his epistle to a vir-
gin that had fallen ; in my opinion it is a masterpiece.
But now if a preacher should not have formed his taste
in these matters before he studies the fathers, he will
be in danger of copying the most unaccurate parts of
their works ; and may perhaps imitate their chief defects
in the sermons he composes.
one of her children, in which you are more wicked than Cain ; for he concealed
his guilt in the desert, and only deprived his brother of a transitory life ; but
you plunge your neighbour into everlasting death, and that in the midst of the
temple, and before the face of the Creator ! Was then the Lord's house built
for swearing, and not for prayer ? Is the sacred altar to occasion the commit-
ting of crimes, instead of expiating them ? But if every other religious senti-
ment is extinguished in you, revere, at least, the holy book, with which you
present your brother to swear upon. Open the holy gospel, on which you are
going to make him swear, and upon hearing what Christ Jesus says of swearing,
tremble and withdraw. And what does Christ say there ? " It has been said
by them of old time, thou shalt not forswear thyself. . . . But I say unto you,
swear not at all." How.' you make people swear on that very book which
forbids the taking of oaths ! Impious procedure 1 Horrid sacrilege ! This is
making the legislator, who condemns murder, an accomplice in the guilt of it.
I shed fewer tears when I hear that a person has been murdered on the high-
way, than when I see a man go up to the altar, lay his hand on the holy book of
the gospels, and take his oath aloud. On this occasion, it is impossible for me
to keep from changing colour, from trembling, and shivering, both for him who
administers, and for him who takes the oath. Miserable wretch ! to secure to
thyself a doubtful sum of money, thou losest thy soul ! Can the benefit thou
reapest, be put in competition with thine and thy brother's loss ? If thoa know-
est, that he from whom thou exactest an oath is a good man, why then art thou
not contented with his word? But if he is not, why dost thou force him to for-
swear himself? Chrysostom against oaths. HomiL xv. ad Pop, Antioch.
176 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
C. But how long continued-tins false eloquence which
succeeded the true kind ?
A. Till now.
C. What do you mean ? Till now,?
A. Yes, till now : for we have'not yet corrected our
taste of eloquence, so much as we imagine. You will
soon perceive the reason of it. The harbarous nations
that overran the Roman empire, did spread ignorance
and a bad taste every where. Now we descended from
them. And though learning began to revive in the fif-
teenth century ; it recovered then but slowly. It was
with great difficulty that we were brought by degrees
to have any relish of a right manner : and even now,
how many are there who have no notion of it ? How-
ever, we ought to show a due respect not only to the
fathers but to other pious authors, who wrote during this
long interval of ignorance. From them we learn the
traditions of their time, and several other useful instruc-
tions. I am quite ashamed of giving my judgment so
freely on this point : but^ gentlemen, ye desired me.
And I shall be very ready to own my mistakes if any
one will undeceive me. But it is time to put an end to
this conversation.
C. We cannot part with you till you give us your
opinion about the manner of choosing a text.
A. You know very well that the use of texts arose
from the ancient custom that preachers observed, in not
delivering their own reflections to the people ; but only
explaining the words of the sacred text. However by
degrees they came to leave off this way of expounding
the whole words of the gospel that was appointed for
the day ; and discoursed only upon one part of it, which
they called the text of the sermon. Now if a preacher
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 177
does Hot make an exact explication of the whole gospel,
or epistle, he ought at least to choose those words that
are most important ; and best suited to the wants and
capacities of the people. He ought to explain them,
well ; and to give a right notion of what is meant by a
single word, it is oft times necessary to expound many
others in the context. But there should be nothing re-
fined or far fetched in such instructions. It must look
very strange and awkward in a preacher to set up for
wit and delicacy of invention, when he ought to speak
with the utmost seriousness and gravity ; out of regard
to the authority of the Holy Spirit, whose words he bor-
rows.
C. I must confess I always disliked a forced text.
Have you not observed that a preacher draws from a text,
whatever sermon he pleases ? He insensibly warps and
bends his subject to make the text fit the sermon that
he has occasion to preach. This is frequently done in
the time of Lent. I cannot approve of it.
B. Before we conclude, I must beg of you to satisfy
me as to one point that still puzzles me, and after that
we will let you go.
Jl. Come, then ; let us hear what it is. I have a
great mind to satisfy you if I can. For I heartily wish
you would employ your parts in making plain and per-
suasive sermons.
B. You would have a preacher explain the holy
scriptures with connexion, according to the obvious sense
of them.
J$. Yes ; that would be an excellent method.
B. Whence then did it proceed that the fathers in-
terpreted the scripture quite otherwise ? They usually
give a spiritual, and allegorical meaning to the sacred
23
178 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
text. Read St. Austin, St. Ambrose, St. Jerom, Origen,
and others of the fathers : they find mysteries every-
where, and seldom regard the letter of the scripture.*
Jl. The Jews that lived in our Saviour's days abound-
ed in these mysterious allegorical interpretations. It
seems that the Therapeutas who lived chiefly at Alexan-
dria, (and whom Philo reckoned to be philosophical Jews,
though Eusebius supposes they were primitive Chris-
tians,) were extremely addicted to these mystical inter-
pretations. And indeed it was in the city of Alexandria
that allegories began to appear with credit among Chris-
tians. Origen was the first of the fathers who forsook the
literal sense of scripture. You know what disturbance he
occasioned in the church. Piety itself seemed to re-
commend these allegorical interpretations. And besides
there is something in them very agreeable, ingenious, and
edifying. Most of the fathers, to gratify the humour of
the people (and probably their own too) made great use
of them. But they kept faithfully to the literal, and the
prophetical sense (which in its kind is literal too) in all
points where they had occasion to show the foundations
of the Christian doctrine. When the people were fully
instructed in every thing they could learn from the letter
of scripture; the fathers gave them those mystical inter-
pretations to edify and comfort them. These explications
were exactly adapted to the relish of the eastern people^
among whom they first arose : for, they are naturally fond
of mysterious and allegorical language. They were the
more delighted with this variety of interpretations, be-
cause of the frequent preaching, and almost constant
reading of scripture, which was used in the church. But
* See note A. at the end of the extract from Fenelon's Letter to the Frencfe
Academy.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 179
among us the people are far less instructed; we must
do what is most necessary ; and begin with the literal
sense ; without despising the pious explications that the
fathers gave. We must take care of providing our dai-
ly bread ; before we seek after delicacies. In interpret-
ing scripture we cannot do better that to imitate the so-
lidity of St. Chrysostom. Most of our modern preach-
ers do not study allegorical meanings, because they have
sufficiently explained the literal sense ; but they forsake
it, because they do not perceive its grandeur ; and reck-
on it dry and barren in comparison of their way of preach-
ing. But we have all the truths and duties of religion
in the letter of the scripture, delivered not only with au-
thority, and a singular beauty, but with an inexhaustible
variety ; so that without having recourse ta mystical in-
terpretations, a preacher may always have a great num-
ber of new and noble things to say. It is a deplorable
thing to see how much this sacred treasure is neglected
even by those who have it always in their hands. If the
clergy applied themselves to the ancient way of making
homilies, we should then have two different sorts of
preachers. They who have no vivacity, or a poetical
genius, would explain the scriptures clearly, without im-
itating its lively, noble manner ; and if they expounded
the word of God judiciously, and supported their doc-
trine by an exemplary life, they would be very good
preachers. They would have what St. Ambrose requires,
a chaste, simple, clear style, full of weight and gravity ;
without affecting elegance, or despising the smoothness
and graces of language. The other sort, having a poet-
ical turn of mind would explain the scripture in its own
style and figures ; and by that means become accomplish-
ed preachers. One sort would instruct people with clear-
180 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQJJENCE.
ness, force, and dignity ; and the other would add to this
powerful instruction, the sublimity, the enthusiasm,* and
vehemence of scripture ; so that it would (if I may so
say) be entire, and living in them, as much as it can be
in men who are not miraculously inspired from above.
B. Oh, Sir ; I had almost forgot an important arti-
cle. Have a moment's patience, I beseech you ; a few
words will satisfy me.
jl; What now ? Have you any body else to censure ?
B. Yes; the panegyrists. Do you think that when
they praise a saint, they ought so to give his character,
as to reduce all his actions and all his virtues to one
point ?
A. That shows the orator's invention and refined
sense.
B. I understand you. It seems you do not like that
method.
* Inspiration may be justly called divine enthusiasm for inspiration is a real
feeling of the divine presence ; and enthusiasm a false one. Characteristics, Vol.
1. p. 53.
This is what our author advances, when in behalf of enthusiasm he quotes
its formal enemies, and shows that they are as capable of it. as its greatest con-
fessors and martyrs. So far is he from degrading enthusiasm, or disclaiming it
in himself, that he looks upon this passion, simply considered, as the most na-
tural ; and its object, the justestin the world. Even virtue itself he takes, to be
no other than a noble enthusiasm, justly directed and regulated by that high
standard which he supposes in the nature of things nor is thorough honesty, in
his hypothesis, any other than this zeal, or passion, moving strongly upon the
species, or view of the decorum and sublime of actions. Others may pursue
different forms, and fix their eye on different species, (as all men do on one or
other ;) the real honest man t however plain or simple he appears, has that high-
est species [the honestum, pulchrum, TO x&Aov fr^ewov] honesty itself in view ;
and, instead of outward forms or symmetries, is struck with that of inward
character, the harmony, and numbers of the heart, and beauty of the affections,
which form the manners, and conduct of a truly social life upon the whole
therefore, according to our author, enthusiasm is in itself, a very natural, honest
passion, and has properly nothing for its object but what is good and honest.
Char. Vol. iii. Miscel. 2. eft. 1.
DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE. 181
A. I think it wrong in most cases. ' He must put a
force upon things, who reduces them all to a single point.
There are many actions of one's life that flow from divers
principles, and plainly show that he possessed very dif-
ferent qualities. The way of referring all the steps of
a man's conduct to one cause, is but a scholastic subtilty,
which shows that the orator is far from knowing human
nature. The true way to draw a just character, is to
paint the whole man, and to set him before the hearer's
eyes, speaking and acting. In describing the course of
his life, the preacher should chiefly point out those pas-
sages wherein either his natural temper, or his piety best
appeared. But there should always be something left
to the hearer's own observation. The best way of prais-
ing holy persons is to recount their laudable actions.
This gives a body and force to a panegyric : this is what
instructs people ; and makes an impression upon their
minds. But it frequently happens that they return home
without knowing any thing of a person's life, about whom
they have heard an hour's discourse : or at least they
have heard many remarks upon a few separate facts,
related without any connexion. On the contrary a preach-
er ought to paint a person to the life ; and show what
he was in every period, in every condition, and in the
most remarkable junctures of his life. This could not
hinder one from forming a character of him: nay, it might
be better collected from his actions, and his words, than
from general thoughts, and imaginary designs.
B. You would choose then to give the history of a
holy person's life, and not make a panegyric.
$. No ; you mistake me. I would not make a sim-
ple narration. I should think it enough to give a cohe-
rent view of the chief facts in a concise, lively, close, pa-
182 DIALOGUES CONCERNING ELOQUENCE.
thetic manner. Every thing should help to give a just
idea of the holy person I praised ; and at the same time
to give proper instruction to the hearers. To this I
would add such moral reflections, as I should think most
suitable. Now do not you think that such a discourse as
this would have a noble and amiable simplicity ? Do not
you believe that the lives of holy people would be bet-
ter understood this way, and an audience be more edified
than they generally are ? Do you not think that accord-
ing to the rules of eloquence we laid down, such a dis-
course would even be more eloquent than those over-
strained panegyrics that are commonly made ?
B. I am of opinion that such sermons as you speak
of would be as instructive, as affecting, and as agreeable
as any other. I am now satisfied, Sir ; it is time to re-
lease you. I hope the pains you have taken with me
will not be lost ; for I have resolved to part with all my
modern collections, and Italian wits ; and in a serious
manner to study the whole connexion and principles of
religion ; by tracing them back to their source.
C. Farewell, Sir ; the best acknowledgment I can
make, is to assure you that I will have a great regard to
what -you have said.
Jl. Gentlemen, goodnight. I wilt leave you with
these words of St. Jerom to Nepotian : ' when you teach
in the church, do not endeavour to draw applause, but
rather sighs and groans from the people ; let their tears
praise you.* The discourses of a clergyman should be
full of the holy scripture. Be not a declaimer, but a true
teacher of the mysteries of God.'
* " When you observe a hearer in silence, not uttering a word, but sorrowful,
dejected, thoughtful, and in this condition returning straight home, and by his
conduct, displaying the fruits of preaching ; you ought to make more account of
such a one, than of him who crowns the preacher with praise and applause."
Lect. vi.
EXTRACT
FBOM
THE LETTER OF M. FENELON
TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY.
RHETORIC has no such influence among us, as it had
among the ancients. Public assemblies meet only for
shows and ceremonies. We have scarce any remains
of a powerful eloquence, either of our old parliaments,
or our general states, or our assemblies of chief persons.
Every thing is determined secretly in cabinet-councils,
or in some particular negociation; so that our people
have no encouragement to use such application as the
Greeks did, to raise themselves by the art of persuasion.
The public use of eloquence is now almost confined to
the pulpit and the bar.
The warmth of our lawyers to gain a cause relating
to the estate of a private person, cannot equal the am-
bition which the Greek orators had to possess them-
selves of the supreme authority in a commonwealth. A
lawyer loses nothing ; nay, he gets his fee, though he
loose the cause he undertook. Is he young ? he ap-
plies himself to plead elegantly, that he may acquire
some reputation, without having ever studied either the
grounds of the law, or the great models of antiquity.
Has he established his character ? he leaves off plead-
ing, and enriches himself by chamber-practice. The
most valuable lawyers are those who set facts in a clear
light : who recur to some fixed principle of law ; and
184 LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY.
answer all objections according to it. But where are
those who have the art of forcing the assent, and mov-
ing the hearts of a whole people ?
Shall I presume to speak with the same freedom
concerning preachers ; God knows how much I rever-
ence the ministers of his .word. But I cannot offend
any particular person among them, by observing in gen-
eral, that they are not all equally humble and disinterested.
Young men, who have little reputation, are too forward
in preaching. People fancy they see that those seek
their own glory more than God's ; and that they are
more earnest about making their fortune, than for the
salvation of souls.
They talk like sparkling orators, rather than like
ministers of Christ, and stewards of his mysteries. It
was not with this vain pomp of words that St. Peter
preached the crucified Jesus, in those sermons which
converted so many thousand people.
Would we learn the rules of a serious, effectual elo-
quence from St. Austin ? He follows Cicero in distin-
guishing three different kinds of speaking. He says we
must speak submissively, in a humble, familiar way ;
mildly, in an engaging, soft, insinuating manner, to make
people love the truth : and nobly, that is, in a lofty,
vehement strain, when we would captivate men, and
rescue them from the dominion of their passions. He
adds, that the only reason for using such expressions as
may please people, is because there are few men reason-
able enough to relish such truths in a discourse as are
quite dry and naked. As for the sublime and vehement
kind, he would not have it florid; "nor embellished
with the ornaments of speech ; but rather full of the
LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY. 185
most pathetic emotions.* For the speaker, following
the impulse of his thoughts, does not industriously study
the beauties of elocution ; but naturally uses such as
rise from the subject itself." The same father observes,
that a man who fights resolutely with a sword, enriched
with gold and jewels, uses these arms, (without regard-
ing the value of them,) because they are fit for fighting.
He adds, that God had permitted St. Cyprian to use
some affected ornaments in his letter to Donatus, that
posterity might see how much the purity of the Chris-
tian doctrine had corrected this superfluous vanity, and
brought him to a more grave and modest eloquence.
But nothing can be more affecting than the two sto-
ries that St. Austin relates to show us the true way of
preaching with success. In the first instance, he was as
yet but a priest. The holy bishop Valerius appointed
him to preach to the people of Hippo, in order to re-
claim them from riotous feasting on solemn days.f He
opened the scriptures, and read to them the most vehe-
ment and threatening reproaches. He earnestly be-
sought his hearers, ' by the ignominies and the sorrows,
by the cross, by the blood of Christ, not to destroy them-
selves ; to pity him who spake to them with so much af-
fection : and to show some regard to their venerable old
bishop, who, out of tenderness to them, had commanded
him to instruct them in the truth. I did not make them,
weep, (says he,) by first weeping over them : but while
I preached, their tears prevented mine. I own that
then I could not restrain myself. After we had wept
* Non tarn vevborum oraatibus comtum est, quam violentum animi afiectibus
fertur quippe impetu suo, et elocutionis pulchritudinem, si occurrerit, vi re-
rum rapit, non cnra dccoris assumit. AUG. de Doct. C/tr. L. ir.
t Ejiist, xxix. ad Alyp,
186 LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY*
together, I began to entertain great hope of their amend-
ment.' On this occasion he quite varied from the dis-
course he had prepared ; because he did not now think
it suitable to their penitent disposition. In fine, he had
the satisfaction of seeing this people tractable, and re-
formed from that very day.
The other occasion, wherein he powerfully swayed
the minds of his audience, is thus related by himself:
4 we must not imagine that a man has spoken in a lofty,
sublime manner, when he receives many acclamations,
and great applause. These are sometimes given to the
lowest turns of wit, and t}ie ornaments of the moderate
sort of eloquence. But the sublime strain ofttimes over-
whelms people's minds with its vehemence : it renders
them speechless : it melts them into tears. When I
endeavoured to persuade the people of Cassarea in Mau-
ritania to Abolish a combat among the citizens, in which
relations, brothers, fathers, and sons, being divided into
two parties, fought publicly for several days, at a certain
time of the year; and every man endeavoured to kill
the person he attacked : according to the utmost of my
ability j I used the most pathetic expressions to extirpate
such a cruel, inveterate custom from the minds and man-
ners of this people. However, I thought I had done
nothing, while I only heard their acclamations. But
their tears gave me some hope : their applauses showed
that I had instructed them ; and that they were pleased
with my discourse : but their tears declared that their
minds were changed. When I saw them weep, I be-
lieved that this horrible custom they had received from
their ancestors, and been so long enslaved to, would be
abolished it is now eight years ago, and upwards, and
by the grace of God they have been restrained from at-
LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY. 187
tempting any such practice.' If St. Austin had weaken-
ed his discourse by the affected ornaments of the florid
kind of rhetoric, he would never have been able to re-
form the people of Hippo and Caesarea,
Demosthenes likewise followed this rule of true elo-
quence. ' O Athenians ! (said he) do not fancy that
Philip is like a deity, assured of succees in all his attempts.
Among those who seem devoted to his interest, there are
some that hate, and dread, and envy him but your neg-
ligence and sloth puts all things to a stand. Consider, O
Athenians, to what condition ye are reduced. This
wicked man is gone so far as to leave you no choice be-
tween vigilance and inactivity. They say he threatens
you ; and talks arrogantly. He is not content now with
what he has already conquered : he forms new projects
every day ; and lays snares for you on all sides, while
you continue still backward and slothful. When then,
O Athenians ! when is it that ye will do what ye ought
to do ? when will ye attempt something ? when will ne-
cessity determine you to act ? what must we think of
what is now a-doing ? in my opinion, no necessity can be
more urgent upon a free people than what arises from
the shame of their past ill conduct. Will ye still wan-
der about in public places, inquiring after news ? what
stranger news can there be, than that a man of Macedon
subdues the Athenians, and governs all Greece ? is Phil*
ip dead ? says one : no, says another, he is only sick,
what avails it, which he is ? for if he were dead, you
would soon raise up another Philip,' Here good sense
speaks without any other ornament than its native force.
The orator makes the truth plain to all the people : he
awakens them : he spurs them on to action : he shows
them their impending ruin. Every thing is spoken for
188 LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY.
the common good ; not a word to show his own wit :
there is no glittering thought : all tends to instruct, and
move the people.
Indeed the Romans began very late to follow the
example of the Greeks, in improving polite learning.
Graiis ingenium, Grails dedit ore rotundo
Musa loqui, praeter laudem nullius avaris.
Romani pueri longis rationibus assem
Discunt in partes centum deducere-
Hor. de Ar. Poet, v. 323.
The Romans were employed ahout their laws and
rights ; about war, and husbandry, and commerce : which
gave Virgil occasion to say,
Excudent alii spirantia mollius aera ;
Credo equidem ; vivos ducent de marmore vultus.
Orabunt causas melius ;
Tu regere imperio populos, Rouianc, memento ;
Hae tibi evunt artes ;
Jlen. vi. v. 848.
Sallust finely describes the manners of antient Rome ;
even while he owns that she neglected literature. ' The
most prudent (says he) were always the busiest. No
one exercised his wit more than his body. The worthi-
est persons chose rather to act wisely, than to declaim :
and to have their brave deeds applauded by others ;
rather than to bury themselves in recording their neigh-
bour's good actions.'
We must acknowledge,'however, according to Livy's
testimony, that a strong and popular eloquence was well
cultivated at Rome in the days of Manlius. This man,
who had saved the capitol from the Gauls, tried to stir
up the people to sedition. " How long," said he, " will
LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY. 189
ye be ignorant of your strength ; which nature discov-
ers to the very beasts ? Count at least how many ye
are I should think ye would fight more resolutely for
liberty, than those men for dominion. How long will
ye look upon me ? Ye may all of you depend on me to
the utmost," &c. This powerful orator persuaded all
the people to pardon him, stretching out his hands to-
wards the capitol, which he had formerly saved. Nor
could his death be obtained of the multitude, till he was
carried into a sacred wood ; whence he could no longer
show them the capitol. " The Tribunes found," says
Livy, " that seeing the people's minds were so strongly
prepossessed with the merit of Manlius, it would be im-
possible to persuade them he was really guilty, unless
they could carry them out of the sight of the capitol,
which reminded them of his glorious service. Then his
crime appeared."
Every one knows what troubles eloquence occasion-
ed among the Greeks. At Rome, Cataline's oratory
brought the republic to the brink of ruin. But that el-
oquence tended only to persuade people and to move
their passions. Wit was never employed in it. A flor-
id declaimer could have had no influence in public affairs.
Nothing can be more artless than Brutus, when he
writes to Cicero with such an air of superiority, as to
reprove and silence him. " You beg our life and safety
of Octavius," says he ; " what death could be so bad ?
By this request you show that tyranny is not destroyed :
and that we have only changed our tyrant. Consider your
own words ; and deny if you can. that such a petition is fit to
be offered to none but a king ; and from a slave too. You
say, that you ask and expect only one favour of him : that
190 LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY.
he would save the lives of those citizens who are es-
teemed by persons of worth, and by all the Roman peo-
ple. What, then, unless he shall graciously please, we
must not live ! But it is better to die than to owe our
lives to him. No : I cannot think the gods are such de-
clared enemies to the safety of Rome, as to be willing
that the life of any citizens should be begged of Octavi-
us ; and far less the lives of those who are the deliverers
of the universe. O Cicero ! can you confess that he has
such power ! and still be one of his friends ? Or if you
love me, can you desire to see me at Rome, when I
cannot come thither without obtaining that boy's per-
mission ? For what do you thank him, if you think that
our life must still be begged of him as a favour ? Must
we reckon it a happiness that he chooses to have such
favours asked rather of him, than of Antony ? This
weakness and despair, which others are guilty of as well
as you, first emboldened Cassar to make himself king.
But if we remembered that we are Romans, the an>
bition of these base men to usurp the government,
would not have been greater than our courage in de-
fending it. I am afraid that you, who have been consul,
and avenged the public of so many crimes, have there-
by only delayed our ruin for a short while. - How can
you behold what you have done ?" How weak, inde-
cent, and mean, must this discourse have appeared, if
it had been filled with witticisms and quaint conceits !
But now, shall those, who ought to speak like apos-
tles, gather up. with industrious affectation, those flow-
ers of rhetoric which Demosthenes, Manlius, and Bru-
tus, trampled on ? Shall .we imagine that the ministers
of the gospel have less concern for the eternal salvation
of souls, than Demosthenes for the liberty of his coun-j
LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY. 191
try ; less zeal to do good, than Manlius had ambition to
seduce the multitude ; or less resolution than Brutus,
who chose death rather than to owe his life to a tyrant ?
I own, that the florid kind of eloquence has its beau-
ties : but they are quite misapply ed in those discourses
that ought to be animated with the noblest passions ; and
wherein there is no room for delicate turns of wit. The
florid sort of rhetoric can never come up to the true sub-
lime. What would the antients have said of a tragedy,
wherein Hecuba laments her misfortunes with points of
wit. True grief does not talk thus. Or what could we
think of a preacher who should, in the most affected jin-
gle of words, show sinners the divine judgment hanging
.over their head, and hell open under their feet ? there
is a decency to be observed in our language, as in our
clothes.* A disconsolate widow does not mourn in frin-
ges, ribbons, and embroidery. And an apostolical minis-
ter ought not to preach the word of God in a pompous
style, full of affected ornaments. The Pagans would not
have endured to see even a comedy so ill acted.
Ut ridentibus arrident, ita flentibus adfleat
Human! vultus. Si vis me flere, dolendum est
Primum ipsi tibi ; tune tua me infortunia laedent,
Telephe, vel Peleu ; male si mandata loqueris,
Aut dormitabo, aut ridebo ; tristia moestum
Vultum verba decent-
Hor. de AT. Poet. v. 101.
We must not judge so unfavourably of eloquence as
to reckon it only a frivolous art that a declaimer uses to
* Nunc quid aptum sit, hoc est, quid maxime deceat in oratione, videamus .
quamquam id quidem perspicuum est, non omni causae, nee auditor!, neque per-
sonae, neque tempori congruere orationis unura genus omnique in re posse quod
deceat facere, artis et naturae est ; scire, quid, quandoque deceat, prudentiae.
Cicero de Oral. lib. iii. k 55,
192 LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY.
impose upon the weak imagination of the multitude, and
to serve his own ends. It is a very serious art ; design-
ed to instruct people ; suppress their passions; and re-
form, their manners; to support the laws; direct public
councils ; and to make men good and happy. The more
pains an haranguer takes to dazzle me, by the artifices
of his discourse, the more I should despise his vanity.
His eagerness to display his wit would in my judgment
render him unworthy of the least admiration. I love a
serious preacher, who speaks for my sake ; and not for
his own ; who seeks my salvation, and not his own
vain-glory. He best deserves to be heard, who uses
speech only to clothe his thoughts ; and his thoughts on-
ly to promote truth and virtue. Nothing is more des-
picable than a professed declaimer. who retails his dis-
courses as a quack does his medicines.
I am willing this point should be determined by the
very heathens. Plato would not permit in his republic
such effeminate notes of music as the Lydians used. The
Lacedemonians excluded from theirs all instruments that
were too compounded ; lest they should soften the peo-
ple's temper. Such harmony as serves merely to please
the ear, is an amusement fit only for soft and idle per-
sons ; and is unworthy of a well-ordered common wealth.
It is no farther valuable than the sounds agree to the
sense of the words ; and the words inspire virtuous sen-
timents. Painting, sculpture, and other elegant arts,
ought to have the same end. This ought undoubtedly
to be the design of eloquence too. Pleasure ought to
be mixed with it only to serve as a counterpoise to
men's vicious passions ; and to render virtue amiable.
I would have an orator prepare himself a long time
by general study, to acquire a large stock of knowledge j
LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY, 193
and to qualify himself for composing well ; that so he
might need the less preparation fer each particular dis-
course. I would have him naturally a man of good sense ;
and to reduce all he says to good sense,* as the standard
of his discourse* His studies should be solid ; he should
apply himself to reason justly ; and industriously avoid
all subtile and over-refined notions. He should distrust
his imagination ; and not let it influence his judgment.
He should ground every discourse upon some evident
principle ; and from that draw the most obvious and nat-
ural consequences.
Scribendi recte sapere est et principium et fons ;
Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae ;
Verbaque provisam rem'non iimta sequentur.
Qui didicit patriae, quid debeat, et quid amicis,
Quo sit amore parens, quo frater amandus et hospes ;
ille profecto
Reddere-personae scit convenientia cuique*.
Hor. de Ar. Poet. v. 309.
Generally speaking, a florid declaimer knows neither
the principles of sound philosophy, nor those of the Chris-
tian doctrine, for perfecting the manners of men. He
minds nothing but bright expressions, and ingenious turns.
What he chiefly wants is solid knowledge. He can talk
handsomely, without knowing what he ought to say.
He weakens the most important truths by his vain and
elaborate turns of fancy, or expression.
On the contrary, the true orator adorns his discourse
* Caeterarum artium studia fere reconditis, atque abditis e fontibus hauriun-
tur; dicendi autem omnis ratio in medio posita, communi quod am in usu, atque
in hominum more et sermone versatur ; ut in caeteris id maxime escellat, quod
longissime sit ab imperitorum intelligentia sensuque disjunctum ; in dicendo au-
tem vitium vel maximum est, a vulgari genere orationis, atque a consuetudine
commtinis sensus abhorrere. Cicero de Oral, lib. i. $ 3.
25
194 LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY.
only with bright truths,* noble sentiments, an4 such
strong expressions as are adapted to his subject, and to
the passions he would excite. He thinks ; he feels ; and
his words naturally flow from him. ' He does not de-
pend on words, (says St. Austin,) but they on him.' A
man that has a great and active soul, with a natural ea-
siness of speech, improved by practice, needs never fear
the want of expressions. His most ordinary discourses
will have exquisite strokes of oratory that the florid ha^
ranguers can never imitate. He is not a slave to words,t
but closely pursues the truth. He knows that vehe-
mence is as it were the soul of eloquence. He first lays
down the principle which must serve to clear the sub-
ject he treats of. He sets this principle in the fullest
light. He turns it every way to give his slowest hear-
ers a clear view of it. He draws the remotest conse-
quences from it by a concise and obvious train of reason-
ing. Every truth is set in its proper place with regard
to the whole ; it prepares, leads on, and supports, anoth-
er truth that needed its assistance. This just order pre-
vents the trouble of needless repetitions ; but it retrench-
es none of those useful ones, that serve to direct the
hearer's attention frequently to that chief point on
which the whole depends. The orator must often show
him the conclusion that is contained in the principle, and
from this principle, as from the centre, he must spread a
due light over all the parts of the discourse ; as a skil-
ful painter places the light so in his picture, as from one
single point to distribute a due proportion of it to every
* Sed ornatus (repetara enira) virilis, fortis et sanctus sit ; nee eflceminatam
laevitatem, nee fuco eminentem colorem amet ; sanguine et viribus niteat.
Quint, lib. viii. c. 3.
t Propterea non debet quisquam ubi maxima rerum momenta versantur, de
verbis esse solicitus. Quint, lib. viii. c. 3-
LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY. 195
jigure. The whole discourse is one ; and may be reduc-
ed to one single proposition, set in the strongest light, by
various views and explications of it. This unity of design
shows the whole performance at one view; as in the pub-
lic places of a city, one may see all the streets and gates of
it, when the streets are straight, equal, and duly propor-
tioned. The discourse is the proposition unfolded ; and
the proposition is an abstract of the discourse.
Denique sit quodvis simplex duntaxat et unum.
Hor. de Ar. Poet. v. 23.
He, who perceives not the beauty and force of this
unity and order, has never seen any thing in its full
| light. He has only seen shadows in Plato's cavern.
What should we say of an architect, who could see no
difference between a stately palace, whose apartments
are adjusted with the exactest proportion, so as to make
one uniform structure ; and a confused heap of little
buildings, which do not compose one regular plan, though
they be all placed together ? what comparison is there
between the Colisaeum, and a confused multitude of ir-
regular houses in a city ? there can be no true unity in
any composure, unless there can be nothing taken from
it without spoiling it. It never has a right order but
when we cannot displace any part without weakening,
obscuring, and disordering the whole. This is what
Horace explains perfectly well.
cui lecta potenter eril res
Nee facundia deseret hunc, nee lucidus ordo.
Ordinis haec virtus erit, et Venus, aut ego fallor
Ut jam nunc dicat, jam nunc debentia dici
Fleraque differat, et praesens in tempus omittat,
De Ar. Poet.
An author who does not thus methodize his discourse
is not fully master of his subject ; he has but an imper-
196 LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY.
feet taste, and a low genius. Order indeed is an excel-
lence we seldom meet with in the productions of the
mind. A discourse is perfect when it has at once meth-
od, propriety, strength, and vehemence. But in order
to this, the orator must have viewed, examined, and com-
prehended every point, that he may range each word in
its proper place.* This is what an ignorant declaimer,
who is guided by his imagination, can never discern.
Isocrates is smooth, insinuating, and elegant ; but
can we compare him to Homer ? I will go farther ;
and am not afraid to say, that I think Demosthenes a
greater orator than Cicero-t I protest there is no man
admires Cicero more than I do. He embellishes every
thing he handles. He is an honour to* speech ; and
makes that happy use of words that no one else could.
He has a vast variety of wit. He is even concise and
vehement, when he designs to be so against Catiline,
Verres, Anthony ; but we may perceive some finery in
his discourses. His art is wonderful, but still we discern
* It is an infallibe proof of .the want of just integrity in every writing, from
the epopeia, or heroic poem, down to the familiar epistle, or slightest essay .either
in verse or orose, if every several part or portion fits not its proper place so ex-
actly, that the least transposition would be impracticable. If there be any pas-
sage in the middle, or end, which might have stood in the beginning ; or any in
the beginning, which might have stood as well in the middle, or end ; there is
properly, in such a piece, neither beginning, middle, or end ; it is a mere rhap-
sody, not a work. And the more it assumes the air or appearance of a real
work, the more ridiculous it becomes. Characteristics^ vol. iii. p. 259, 260.
t Quorum ego virtutes plerasque arbitror similes, consilium, ordinem divi-
dendi, praparandi, probandi rationem ; omnia denique, quse sunt inventionis.
In eloquendo est aliqua diversitas ; densior ille, (Demosthenes ;) hie (Cicero)
copiosior ; ille concludit adstrictius ; hie latius pugnat ; ille acumine semper ;
hie frequenter et pondere : illi nihil detrahi potest ; huic nihil adjici ; curas plus
in hoc ; in illo naturas. Cedendum vero in hoc quidem, quod ille et prior fuit, et
ex magna parte Ciceronem, quantus est, fecit. Nam mihi videtur M. Tullius,
cum se toturn ad imitationem Gra?corum contulisset, effiinxisse vim Demosthq-
3;s, copiam Platonis, jucunditatem Isocratis. QUINT, lib. x.cap. 1.
LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY. 197
it. While he is concerned for the safety of the repub-
lic, he does not forget 'that he is an orator ; nor does he
let others forget it. Demosthenes seems transported,
and to have nothing in view but his country. He does
not study what is beautiful, but naturally falls into it,
without reflecting. He is above admiration. He uses
speech, as a modest man does his clothes, only to cover
himself. He thunders, he lightens ; he is like a torrent
that hurries every thing along with it. We cannot
criticise him; for he is master of our passions. We
consider the things he says, and not his words. We
lose sight of him : we think of Philip only, who usurps
every thing. I am charmed with these two orators ; but I
confess that Tully's prodigious art and magnificent elo-
quence effects me less than the vehement simplicity of
Demosthenes.*
Artf lessens and exposes itself, when it is too open.
Thus Longinus says, that " Isocrates blundered like a
school boy, when he began one of his panegyrics in this
manner ;" ' Seeing such is the nature of eloquence,
that it can make great things appear little, and
small things to seem great ; that it can represent
the oldest things as new, and the newest as old.'
" Is it thus, O Isocrates !" one might say, " that
you are going to change all things with regard to the
Lacedemonians and the Athenians? By this manner of
praising eloquence, he makes a preamble, to caution his
hearers against believing any thing he should say." In
effect, it was to declare to the world, that orators are
only sophists, such as Plato's Gorgias was, and the other
* For a comparison between Cicero and Demosthenes, the reader may con-
sult ROI.LIN'S Belles Letters, vol. ii. chap. 3. sect. 3 Dr. BLAIR'S Led. vol.
iv. Mr. HUME'S Essays, vol. i. essay 12. KJSOX'S Essays, vol. i. No. 44.
t Sed hoc pati non possumus, et perire artem putamus, nisi appareat ; cum
desinat ars ease, si apparet. Quint, lib. iv. cap. 2.
198 LETTER TO THE FRENCH ACADEMY.
declaimers of Greece ; who perverted rhetoric to im-
pose on the people.
Since eloquence requires that an orator should be a
man of probitj, and be esteemed such, if he would ex-
pect success in the most common affairs of life ; how
much greater reason have we to believe this saying of
St. Austin, concerning those who ought to speak like
apostles ? ' He preaches sublimely, whose life is irre-
proachable.'* What good can we expect from the
discourses of a young man without solid knowledge,
without experience, without an established character ;
who makes a diversion of oratory ; and, perhaps, endeav<-
ours to raise his fortune by that ministry, which obliges
us to be poor with Jesus Christ ; to bear our cross with
him, by self-denial ; and to command men's passions in
order to convert them?
* " With respect to preaching, the whole of it depends on piety. 'It is that
which makes you seek out edifying subjects, and confine yourselyes to such as
are useful and necessary. That gives force and unction to your discourse, and
makes you say affecting things. A pious man understands the human heart ;
piety is the source of true eloquence, which is natural, simple, and sublime."
OSTERV ALB'S Lect. i.
NOTE A,
REFERRED TO ON PAGE 178.
The quaint and whimsical exposition of the scriptures, often intro-
duced into sermons, especially when a metaphor belongs to the
subject of discourse, is so inconsistent with the proper ends of
preaching ; that it seems desirable to place this fault in a dis-
tinct light, for the admonition of those, who are entering upon
the duties of the sacred office.
The following pages are extracted from the Christian Observer,
as containing a . detailed specimen of this defect, which, in
greater or smaller degrees of excess, is common in the pulpit.
A PEW days ago I heard a sermon preached at S church,
by the Rev. Mr. B , from Mark i. 17; "And Jesus said
unto them. Come ye after me, and I will make you to become
fishers of men."
Mr. B observed, that Jesus Christ used to teach the
people spiritual things, by means of sensible and familiar objects.
In the present case, he spoke to fishermen, who understood well
what fishing was : he therefore represented to them the nature
of the Gospel ministry by means of this their trade. " In pros-
ecution of this idea, I propose," said the preacher, " to show
you three things : First, As the fish caught by these fishermen
were taken out of the sea, so I shall show you what is that sea
out of which those spiritual fish spoken of by Christ are taken ;
secondly, I shall show the manner of taking them ; and thirdly,
the effects of their being so taken. For as Christ made use of
this metaphor, we may be sure that the metaphor is perfect, and
that it must be a suitable one in all its parts.
" First, then, what is that sea out of which the spiritual fish
are taken? The sea is unquestionably the world ; that world, I
mean, which * lieth in wickedness. 5 To prove this, let us mark
some other passages of scripture.
200
" 1. Does not the scripture say, ' That the wicked are like
a troubled sea ;' yea, that they are like a sea ' which castelh up
mire and dirt ?' Again, does not Job speak of the sea as con-
taining things innumerable, both small and great ? and there is
that great Leviathan, which hath his pastime therein. So the
world contains people great and small, high and low ; people
various and innumerable. In another striking particular does
the wicked world resemble the sea. In the sea the fishes, of
which some are great and some are small, devour one another.
They live by this means ; for God has appointed it. And in
this wicked world what a confusion is there ! Confusion in fam-
ilies, confusion in cities, confusion in kingdoms ! Turn your
face now to France, turn it to Italy what horrid wickedness
and confusion is every where seen how does one man or one
party devour another ! At one time the king of France is put
to death by the people ; then the people are overwhelmed by
one faction and then by another, and so it is ; confusion upon,
confusion, factions and individuals all destroying one another.
" Again, the wicked world is like the sea, inasmuch as the
fishes in the sea, like the wicked men in the world, are all fol-
lowing their own natural propensities, and have no taste for any
thing else. How do the youth run to the ball, and the play,
and the card-table, and place all their- delight therein ! They
have no taste for spiritual pleasures no more than a fish has
for any pleasures or employments out of the water.
"And this brings me to the second thing, which is to shew
you what is the manner in which these spiritual fish are caught.
But here, first, I would observe, that there is such a thing as un-
lawful nets ; and so in the Gospel there is an unlawful net which
some fishermen throw ; I mean the net of mere morality. Mo-
rality never did, nor never can convert one poor sinner to God.
From the creation of the world to the present hour, it never con-
verted one ; and why ? Because it is not the Gospel. When
men speak of the stupendous love of Christ, of his mercy and
grace to sinners, of the guilt and wretchedness of man, and of a
free salvation, then they throw the Gospel-net, and God will
then bless his word, for he has promised that such fishermen as
201
these shall never labour in vain. They may be disappointed
for a time. We may throw our net on one Sunday and catch no
fish, and then throw it again on another Sunday ; but on one
day if not on another, some poor soul shall be converted to God
by it. It is true, that angling is another way of catching fish 5
on which I must say, that they who preach mere morality are
like fishermen who throw the bait into the water a pleasing
bait, which the fish are very eager after, but there is no hook to
it. The spiritual fish are never caught in this way.
" What, then, is the way in which these spiritual fish are
caught? And first, I would say, that they are taken out of the
water, and no more return to it. And so is the matter repre-
sented in Scripture, where it is said, that God hath translated us
into the kingdom of his dear Son. He that is caught in the Gos-
pel-net never returns to the world. He experiences a total
change in conversion as great a change as it would be for a
fish to be taken out of the sea, and to have the nature of one of
those animals given him, which live on dry land ; for this would
be a miracle, undoubtedly ; and so. conversions are miracles.
Each individual conversion is as much a miracle as that would
be, for it is wrought by the omnipotent power of God. And in
this I apprehend consists the chief beauty of the present meta-
phor. It is that which seems to have been particularly intended
by it.
" Againj when fish are caught, you know they always strive
to get back again, though they cannot. So the sinner, when
caught in the Gospel-net, struggles hard to get back into the
sea ; that is, into the world ; but the omnipotent power of God
keeps him out. Say, now, you that have been drawn out of
the world by the grace of God, did you not struggle a while to
" return thither again ?
" Again, there are nets of various sorts and sizes used in fish-
ing ; and so the Gospel-minister has various subjects by which
he endeavours to draw his hearers ' We do not use the same
net for sprats that we do for salmon.* Some ministers alarm the
conscience by the terrors of the Lord, some melt and draw the
sinner by the sweet mercies of the Gospel, &c. &c. 1 have of.
26
ten admired those passages in St. Paul, by which he endeavoured
to win the hearts of his several hearers. And so we also have
our different nets. We lake one text on one day, and endeavour
to catch you by it, and we take another text another day ; and
we handle the Gospel sometimes in one manner, and sometimes
in a new and different manner ; and thus it is, that different souls
are caught.
" And now, thirdly, what is the effect or consequence of
catching these spiritual fish ? The first and chief consequence
I would name is, that as a fish dies when taken out of the water,
so are they dead to the things in which they once lived. Mark
now that passage of the Apostle, " For ye are dead, and your
life is hid with Christ in God." They come into a new ele-
ment ; they have no taste for the pleasures of that element in
which alone they could once live. What is the world's element ?
It is pleasure, riches, and so forth. But the converted person is
dead to these. And here let me call your attention, to that par-
ticular passage of Scripture, in which Peter is employed in catch-
ing a fish, in whose mouth a piece of money was found. On
this there is, I believe, a remark made by an old expositor, which
will be of use to us in the present case. Peter threw in his
hook at the command of Christ, and drew up the fish ; and be-
hold in its mouth was a piece of money ! Now this money in
the fish's mouth may shew how much money and wealth are apt
to be in the mouth, and also in the heart, of the unconverted
man, till the fisherman catches him and draws him out. But
when the fish is drawn out of the water, then he drops the money
out of his mouth ; and what does he do with it ? " He gives it
to Peter," that is to say, he commits it to Peter, or some min-
ister or steward of God, to be employed by him in deeds of
mercy and loving-kindness to his brethren.
" Again, when the spiritual fish are caught, we may observe,
that their next business is to catch others ; l when thou art con-
verted, strengthen thy brethren.' One becomes a bait for an-
other, &c.
" And now, my brethren," the preacher observed in conclu-
sion, " may God grant that some of you may be converted to
203
God this night ; or if not this night, may you at least be caught
in the Gospel-net before the awful hour of death shall come.
Think of that hour ; how dreadful to the sinner ! how happy to
the saint ! We set before you the Gospel-promises. If it were
not for these, we should have no hope of gaining your soul.
But it is because your bodies must die and moulder in the grave :
it is because your souls must live for ever : it is because heaven
is so glorious, and hell so dreadful, that we so earnestly address
you. These are the baits by which we would allure you. But
ye must be born again : ye cannot go to heaven without it. An
unconverted man, if he was in heaven, would 'be more miserable '
than if he was in the lowest hell ; for what pleasure would there
be in heaven to him who has no heart to pray, to attend the
preaching of the Gospel, and to hear the precious name of
Christ sounded forth in his ears ?" He ended with praying that
what had now been said might be the means of awakening and
converting some present, and that Jesus Christ would send down
his Spirit, that his name might be glorified, and their souls ever-
lastingly saved.
In justification of the above sermon, it will probably be said
by the favourers of this mode of preaching, and it may in part,
perhaps, be said with truth
1 . That though faulty in some particulars, it contains much
"Gospel-truth;" that the fundamental points of Christianity,
viz. the fall and total corruption of man, the necessity of regene-
ration, salvation by free grace, and faith in Christ are either
strongly asserted or clearly implied ; and that to these, whenever
clearly preached, though with much imperfection, God may be
expected to give his blessing.
2. That this manner of preaching is also popular, being
likely both to draw a congregation to church, and also to fix
their attention when there, which is a great point ; most minis-
ters finding it very difficult to gain hearers, while this preacher's
church is always remarkably full.
3. It will also perhaps be urged, that this gentleman's preach-
ing has been found useful ; many having been awakened and
converted by it, and that the test of good and bad preaching is,
generally speaking, the effect.
204
In palliation of the faults of it, it will probably be said
1. That the preacher is a man of a lively, and perhaps too
fanciful, turn of mind ; that all men have their particularities :
and that too strict criticism must not be applied to the sermons
of every lively preacher ; for whose sermons will bear this ?
2. That although some texts of Scripture were strained by
the preacher, and many inferences from the text pushed beyond
our Saviour's intention, yet that every material thing stated in
the course of the sermon was true, and proveable from other
texts of Scripture, if not from his own text.
3. That many other good men besides Mr. B , fall into
the same way of too much spiritualizing a plain text ; that, in
particular, many a good old Puritan used to do so ; and that the
part of his sermon most liable to the objection of a critic seems
to have been borrowed from some old Puritan or commentator
of Scripture, who partook largely of this fault.
Having thus stated what may be said in favour of this mode
of preaching, it will now be well to consider what are the ob
jections to it.
1. And first, the use made of the words of the text (which
were words spoken by our Saviour himself) is dearly not the use
which our Saviour intended that we should make of them. The
truth of this objection it seems hardly necessary to prove ; for
who can believe that our Saviour, in merely saying to these fish-
ermen, " Come after me, and I will make you fishers of men,"
meant also to teach us that the world was like the sea, and also
that it was like the sea because both fishes and men are in the
habit of devouring one another, &c. &c. &c. The manner, in-
deed, in which Mr. B attempts to establish the resemblance,
is a clear proof how ridiculous is the attempt. He quotes the
following text, " The wicked are like the troubled sea, the waves
whereof cast up mire and dirt :" that is to say, wicked men are
like the troubled sea 5 but what he had asserted was that the
ivorld or place in which wicked men live was like the sea, not
that wicked men themselves were. The wicked men themselves
he had compared to fishes. Thus the introduction of the text
from Isaiah only increases the confusion, not to mention how
205
ridiculous it would be to suppose a connexion between this pas-
sage of Isaiah and our Saviour's words in the text, even if they
accorded. He next says, The sea is like the world, because as
there are fishes of many sizes in the sea, so there are men of
many degrees in the world. Equally, therefore, might it be said
that the world is like the air because there are in it birds of
many sizes ; or like, in short, almost every thing in nature which
consists of many parts ; for what is there of which the many
parts are not of many sizes ?
The error as to the present point seems to be this : Mr. B
says, that " the words of Christ in the text are a metaphor,"
and that " we may be sure that every metaphor used by Christ
must be perfect and complete in all its parts." To which it is
answered, that every metaphor is perfect and complete, if it per-
fectly and completely answers the purpose of giving the one
simple impression intended by it.
^ Alexander was a lion," is a metaphor which has been often
used ; and this is the common instance of a metaphor which is
given in the most simple books on that subject. Does it then
follow that they who have used that metaphor have intended to
say that Alexander was like a lion in any thing else than in his
fierceness and his courage ? Is the metaphor imperfect unless
Alexander can be also shown, in some ingenious way or other, to
have four legs like a Hon, and a long and flowing mane ? So
likewise it is not to be supposed, that because our Saviour by a
metaphor called ministers fishers of men, he intended therefore
that we should find out a resemblance between the world and
the sea, between the act of drawing a fish out of the sea and the
act of converting a sinner, and between the effects, which follow
after catching a fish, and the effects which follow after converting
a man. To attempt such a resemblance is not ingenious ; it is
ridiculous ; and it tends, therefore, ta render the gospel ridicu-
lous.
Our Saviour was sober and serious, and not playful, when he
used the expression in the text : he meant to speak seriously,
and only generally and briefly, of the future occupation of the
fishermen whom he was then calling to the ministry, and he did
206
not advert at ail to the multitude of little circumstances which
belong to fishing or belong to the Gospel-ministry ; but Mr.
B has run a long parallel between fishing and preaching, &c.
&c., and he has therefore done that which was never intended
by Christ. And thus, while he has amused his hearers, he has
sacrificed their edification ; for perhaps hardly any thing is more
hostile to edification than the little wit and humour and petty
conceit of the pulpit.
He that negociates between God and man,
As God's ambassador, the grand concerns
Of judgment and of mercy, should beware
Of lightness in his speech. 'Tis pitiful
To court a grin when you should woo a soul ;
To break a jest, when pity would inspire
Pathetic exhortation ; and V address
The skittish fancy with facetious tales,
When sent with God's commission to the heart !
2. Let us consider, a little more closely, some of the serious
mischiefs which result from this as well as from every other false
and corrupt mode of treating Scripture. For the preacher to
give to the people, in any respect, a false idea of the things in-
tended by God to be taught by a text is certainly a serious evil.
The Scriptures are Scriptures of truth : they should be rever-
enced as conveying truth. A truly serious mind is athirst to
search out those truths they contain, and is anxious to have no
human alterations or additions made to them. Such a one wish-
es to have a text of Scripture explained, applied to his con-
science, and accommodated to present circumstances and pres-
ent times, by fair and simple inference ; but he wishes not to
have any new, conceited, entertaining, or surprising meaning
given to it : he desires only to have the pure word of God.
This anxiety to know the truth, which must be the character-
istic of every serious mind, will be accompanied with much
jealousy on the subject. Such a person will be afraid of being
seduced out of the plain path of Scripture in order to gather
flowers : he will keep close to Scripture in every respect. 'He
will not be satisfied, therefore, with that apology for misinter-
207
preting a text which is so common ; namely, that though the
text is misinterpreted, yet their might be found other texts which
would prove the point that is assumed. He reflects that this is
an unsafe way of proceeding for one whose eternal interests are
at stake ; that a false interpreter of one text is but too likely to
be a false interpreter of another; that interpretations must be
watched in each case ; and that one false interpretation is apt,
in many instances, almost necessarily to beget another. More-
over, he considers that there are some false interpretations which
indicate a false system of interpretation ; such for instance, as
the present ; for the same person who thinks he must, by his in-
genuity, discover certain coincidences in treating the present
metaphor, which coincidences our Saviour never intended, will
be likely to exercise a like sort of mischievous ingenuity in ex-
plaining every other metaphor and parable, and possibly almost
every other passage in Scripture which he may chance to handle.
Nay, there is great danger lest he should choose those texts to
preach upon, the false and conceited interpretations of which he
may find it most easy to deal in without being detected by his
hearers. When this is the case, it will be the dark, the doubt-
ful, and difficult texts that will be chiefly presented to a congre-
gation ; and the plainest, which are the most important, will be
neglected as not affording scope for the ingenuity of the orator,,
How awful a case is this! How awful for the hearers on the
one hand T How awful also for the preacher I The guilt of
such a conduct in one, who is a steward of the mysteries of God y
and who is required to be found faithful, and especially in one
who professes to preach not himself but Christ Jesus the Lord,
is what I will not attempt to estimate. It can only be estimated
on the great judgment day. Every indulgence of a conceited
taste, leads* how ever, this way ; and this taste is one of the great
corrupters of the oracles of God. Again when this habit of
false interpretation takes place, who shall say that the ortho-
doxy of the preacher is a sufficient security to his hearers ; for
does not orthodoxy, in its enlarged and most proper sense, con-
sist in thinking rightly as to all the several parts of Scripture, as
to practice as well as faith ; and even if the faith in a few great
208
doctrines continues right, yet does not the liberty which men
take with texts give great opportunity of destroying the due
proportion and the just symmetry of Scripture ? May not a
favourite tenet be magnified beyond all bounds ? May not
apostles and prophets be represented by means of this ingenui*
ty, as ever dwelling on the same point as the preacher ? May
not one class of texts be multiplied, and another class of texts
diminished, just as much as if erasures and interpolations of
Scripture were to take place ? And is not a wo pronounced on
the man who shall either add too, or take away from, the words
of that book ?
Again ; if one man may interpret falsely for one purpose, why
may not another man claim the same right for another ? How is
Scripture thus rendered a book of a thousand different and con-
trary meanings ; and how may every point of orthodoxy be thus
successfully attacked or undermined, by those who use only the
same false system of interpretation in attacking it, which others
use in defending it ! How may error be thus promoted on every
side ! How may also differences of opinion be multiplied, and
Christian charity and unity destroyed ! How may the several and
contradictory whims of men become all sanctioned by its being
pretended of them all that they make a part of the word of God !
All this, I say. may be done by that free and general use of mis-
applied ingenuity and conceit, of which this sermon, throughout
the chief parts of it, affords a license and an example.
There is, perhaps, no point in what is commonly called or-
thodoxy, which it is more necessary to guard, than our general
system and habit of interpreting scripture. A preacher, whose
general rules and habits of interpreting Scripture are false and
incorrect, insensibly but most effectually communicates to his
hearers the same habits which he has unhappily ^adopted. The
hearer learns to misinterpret his own bible at home, to make it
bend to his own prejudices, extravagances, and errors, and per-
haps learns to look into it for little else than riddles and conceits,
and not for plain and sober directions how he may walk so as to
please God.
3. Another evil arising from a preacher's using this false in-
209
genuity in treating texts of Scripture is, the disadvantage undef
which it places those more upright and more faithful ministers^ whose
consciences will not allow them to resort to the same art of pleasing
a congregation. The true minister of the Gospel is undervalued ;
his explanations of Scripture seem flat and insipid ; his spiritual
knowledge and penetration into Scripture are thought inferior ;
his character is discredited ; perhaps it is doubted whether he is
a true minister of the Gospel ; his church is thinned ; in the mean
timej the man of mere conceit is followed and is extolled for his
spiritual light.
4. But the great evil of all is, the mischief done to the souls of
the persons who crowd to hear those entertaining harangues, which
consist of sparkling conceits and misinterpretations of Scripture. ,
There can be no doubt that the hearers mistake the pleasure they
feel in partaking of the entertainment for the pleasure of hearing
the Gospel. Man is a being extremely liable to be deceived by
false associations of things. Is there a sermon preached which
is half fanciful and ludicrous, and half evangelical and just?
Hearers will flock to it for the sake of the fanciful part ; will con-
found the whole together in their minds : and though in truth,
they are only or chiefly entertained by the many fanciful passag-
es they will confidently think that it is the evangelical part of the
sermon which pleases them. It is thus that multitudes deceive
their own souls ; " for the heart of man is deceitful above all
things, as well as desperately wicked." It seems to have been,
for this reason that Paul abstained from all meretricious orna-
ments, when he preached the Gospel of Christ. He was afraid
Jest his hearers, if he mixed his own fancifulness, or his own
studied and affected oratory, with the pure word which he deliv-
ered, should follow him for the sake of this, and not for the sake
of the Gospel. " I determined," therefore, said he, " not to
know any thing among you, save Jesus Christ, and him crucified,
and my speech and my preaching were not with enticing words
of man's wisdom ;" " for do I now please man, or God ?"
It is material to apply this observation still more particularly
to the present sermon. There is in it, undoubtedly, an occasion-
al mention (and in a plain manner) of some leading truths of the
27
210
Gospel : and yet, if the manner of mentioning these is well con-
sidered 5 if the probable character of the audience is taken into
contemplation ; and if, likewise, the general drift of the sermon
is weighed, it may then possibly be found that even those Gos-
pel truths, slated as they were,- and under all the circumstances
of the case, were likely not only to be inefficient, "but perhaps
even worse than inefficient, in respect to no small part of the con-
gregation.
The Gospel truths chiefly asserted were the total corruption
of man, the necessity of conversion, of faith, and of the love of
Christ, as well as the inefficacy of preaching morality ; -all
points of infinite importance, but which need to be taught, not
by being briefly named only, or violently asserted, but by being
fully and clearly explained, both as to their nature and effects.
Now it may be observed, that the common people, (of whom
a large part of this congregation consisted,) generally like strong
doctrine, and seldom take offence at its strength. We mean,
that even they whose lives evince that they are not the better for
it, seldom quarrel with the doctrine, if they are people of the
lower class. The reasons of this are several : One is, that the
lower people are credulous, and apt to take upon trust any doc-
trine that is vehemently preached. Another is, that the common
people reflect and reason little, and do not therefore easily per-
ceive the holines of life and practice to which the doctrine binds
them, nor even the manner in which a doctrine condemns them-
selves. A further reason of their loving strong doctrine is, that
they love to be somewhat roughly dealt with, and to be even, in
any way, strongly and vehemently impressed. The brief men-
tion of two or three strong doctrines to an unlettered audience,
is therefore both a means of being popular among them, and, if
this brief and strong mention of it be all, is a means of doing but
little good. In the present case, there is reason to fear, that the
good and sound doctrine, for such there certainly is in it, may
have been given only in -such manner and quantity, as even ta
promote in many persons the self-delusion so much to be dread-
ed ; for, in order successfully to introduce into any mixed con-
gregation delusion and error, there must always be some mix-
ture of truths. Had Mr. B 's sermon consisted of nothing else
211
than an uninterrupted succession of mere conceits, few, or none*
probably would have been misled by it ; but the good Gospel
sayings in it would make it pass.
It will, however, probably be replied to all that has been said,
that such preaching as that of Mr. B- - has, in point of fact,
been found very useful, very many persons having been convert-
ed by it. To this I answer, that it would riot x be enough to say
that many had been converted by him 5 for the very point, which
I have been labouring to prove, is, that the word Corarem'ow, un-
less the clear nature of the thing be fully and at large explained,
is a word extremely vague and delusive. Before we can admit
the force of the observation, it must be therefore shown in detail
from what, and to what, he has converted so many people. The
fair presumption certainly is, that he has converted them to just
his own way of interpreting Scripture, and to all his own tenets
as far as they appear in his sermons. The mere circumstance
of an effect being produced, is not .to be allowed to be in itself
material. The Pharisees of old produced an effect by their
preaching; for it is observed in Scripture, that they made pros-
elytes ; but then the misfortune was, that their proselytes were
ten times more the children of hell than before. The Socinians
of this day make converts ; but unhappily it is converts to Socin-
ianism. Mr. Huntington has made many converts, but they are
many of them converts to every tittle of his own extravagant and
antimonian opinions. It is of the nature of every seed to pro
-duce after its own kind. To assume that because a man's
preaching makes converts to his own opinions it is a conclu-
sive proof of the goodness of the preacher, is therefore to beg
the whole question. The probability in this case is, that since
the hearers of Mr. B occasionally hear other preachers,
the effect produced is the joint effect of the whole of the preach-
ing which they hear. What may be defective in Mr. B 's
preaching, may partly be supplied by others, and the full evil of
his system may for that reason not appear.
I might also have dwelt on the subject of the false taste and
conceit of certain parts of this sermon, and particularly of one
part of it, which seems to have been a quotation, Such ludi-
212
croas expositions of Scripture are well known to have marked the
character of those persons who, in the time of Cromwell, most
shamefully disgraced the profession of religion ; and are not un^
likely to be considered by reflecting men as symptoms of a sim-
ilar tendency, among the zealous religionists of the present day.
We have chosen, however, to attack this sermon chiefly in what
appeared to be most fundamental, namely, on account of the in-
effectual way in which Gospel doctrine is taught in it; on ac-
count of the room for self-flattery, which it affords to the bulk of
hearers ; and also on account of the unfair and unwarrantable
mode in which the preacher attempts to catch attention, by a
false system of interpreting Scripture. To borrow his own
phrase, may it not be even questioned whether he himself, in this
instance, may not be one of those persons, who have been fish-
ing with an unlawful net, and casting among his hearers an agree-:
able bait, which, howeyer, may have had no hook attached to it ?
CLAUDE'S ESSAY
ON THE
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON.
ESSAY, &c.
CHAP. I.
ON THE CHOICE OP TEXTS.
THERE are in general five parts of a sermon, the ex-
ordium, the connexion, the division, the discussion, and
the application : but, as connexion and division are parts
which ought to be extremely short, we can properly
reckon only three parts ; exordium, discussion, and appli-
cation. However, we will just take notice of connex-
ion and division after we have spoken a little on the
choice of texts, and on a few general rules of discussing
them.* '
* Bishop Wilkin says, " Preaching should have its rules- and canons, where-
by men may be directed to the easiest and readiest way for the practice ,of it
Besides all academical studies of languages, sciences, divinity, &c. besides all
these, there is a particular art of preaching. Two abilities are requisite in every
one ; a right understanding of sound doctrine, and an ability to propound, con-
firnij and apply it to others. The first may be without the other ; and, as a man
may be a good lawyer, and yet not a good pleader ; so he may be a good divine^
and yet not a good preacher. One reason why men of eminent parts are so slow
and unskilful herein, is, that they have not been versed in this study, and are
therefore unacquainted with those proper roles and directions by which they
should be guided in the attaining and exercise of this gift. It hath been the
usual course at the university, to venture upon this calling in an abrupt, over-
hasty manner. When scholars have passed over their philosophical studies, and
made some little entrance on divinity, they presently think themselves fit for the
pulpit, without any father inquiry, as if the gift of preaching, and sacred orato-
ry, was not a distinct art of itself. This would be counted very preposterous
in other matters, if a man should presume on being an orator because he was a
logician, or to practise physic because he had learned philosophy," &c.
Wilkitfs Ecde&iasfes*
216 AN ESSAt ON THE
1. Never choose such texts as have not a complete sense ;
for only impertinent and foolish people will attempt to
preach from one or two words, which signify nothing.
2. Not only words, which have a complete sense of
themselves must be taken, but they must also, include
the complete sense of the writer., whose words they are 5
for it is his language, and they are his sentiments, which
you explain. For example, should you take these
words of 2 Cor. i. 3. Blessed be God the Father of our
Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of mercies and the God of
all comfort, and stop here, you would conclude a com-
plete sense ; but it would not be the apostle's sense.
Should you go farther, and add, who comforteth us in all
our tribulation, it would not then be the complete sense of
St. Paul, nor would his meaning be wholly taken in, un-
less you went on to the end of the fourth verse. When
the complete sense of the sacred writer is taken, you
may stop ; for thervj are few texts in scripture, which
do not afford matter sufficient for a sermon ; and it is
equally inconvenient to take too much text* or too little 5
both extremes must be avoided.
When too little text is taken, you must digress from
the subject to find something to say ; flourishes of wit
and imagination must be displayed, which are not of the
genius of the pulpit ; and, in one word, it will make the
hearers think, that self is more preached than Jesus
Christ ; and that the preacher aims rather at appearing
a wit, than at instructing and edifying his people.
When too much text is taken, either many important
considerations, which belong to the passage, must be
left out, or a tedious prolixity must follow. A proper
measure, therefore, must be chosen, and neither too lit-
tle, nor too much matter taken. Some say, preaching is
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 217
designed only to make scripture understood, and there-
fore they take a great deal of text, and are content with
giving the sense, and with making some principal reflec-
tions ; hut this is a mistake ; for preaching is not only
intended to give the sense of scripture, but also of the-
ology in general 5 and, in short, to explain the whole of
religion, which cannot be done^ if too much matter be
taken ; so that, I think, the manner commonly used in our
churches is the most reasonable, and the most comform-
able to the end of preaching. Every body can read
scripture with notes and comments to obtain simply the
sense ; but we cannot instruct, solve difficulties, unfold
mysteries, penetrate into the ways of divine wisdom, es-
tablish truth, refute error, comfort, correct, and censure,
fill the hearers with an admiration of the wonderful
works and ways of God, inflame their souls with zeal,
powerfully incline them to piety and holiness, which are
the ends of preachingj unless we go farther than barely
enabling them to understand scripture.
3. To be more particular, regard must be paid to
circumstances, times, places and persons, and texts must
be chosen relative to them. Times are ordinary or ex-
traordinary. Ordinary times are Lord's supper-days,
new-year's day, &c. On these days particular texts should
be chosen, which suit the service of the day ; for it
would discover great negligence to take texts on such
days, which have no relation to them. It is not to be
questioned but on these days peculiar efforts ought to
be made, because then the hearers come with raised ex-
pectations, which, if not satisfied, turn into contempt,
and a kind of indignation against the preacher.
Particular days not fixed, but occasional, are fast
days, ordination days, days on which the flock must be
28
218 AN ESSAY ON THE
extraordinarily comforted, either on account of the
falling out of some great scandal, the exercise of
some great affliction, or the inflicting of some great
censure. On fast-days, it is plain, particular texts
must be expressly chosen for the purpose ; but on
other occasions it must rest on the preacher's judg-
ment ; for most texts may be used extraordinarily,
to comfort, exhort, or censure ; and, except the sub-
ject in hand be extremely important, the safest way
is not to change the usual text. For ordination-days ex-
traordinary texts and agreeable to the subject ia hand
must be taken, whether it regards the ord^ainer, or the
ordained ; for very often he, who is ordained in the
morning, preaches in the afternoon.
I add one word touching sermons in strange church-
es. 1. Do not choose a text which appears odd, or the
choice of which vanity may be supposed to dictate. 2,
Do not choose a text of censure; for a stranger has no
business to censure a congregation, which he does not
inspect ; unless he have a particular call to it, being eith-
er sent by a synod, or intreated by the church itself*
In such a case the censure must be conducted with wis-
dom, and tempered with sweetness. Nor 3. Choose a
text leading to curious, knotty questions ; then it would be
said, the man meant to preach himself. But 4. Choose
a text of ordinary doctrine, in discussing which, doctrine
and morality may be mixed, and rather let moral things
be said by way of exhortation and consolation than by
way of censure ; nor that the vicious should not be cen-
sured ; for reproof is essential to preaching ; but it
must be given soberly, and in general terms, when we
are not with our own flocks,
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 219
CHAP. II.
GENERAL RULES OP SERMONS,
ALTHOUGH the following general rules are well known,
yet they are too little practised : they ought, however,
to be constantly regarded.
1. A sermon should clearly and purely explain a text,
make the sense easy to be comprehended, and place
things before the people's eyes, so that they may be un-
derstood without difficulty. This rule condemns embar-
rassment and obscurity, the most disagreeable thing in
the world in a gospel pulpit. It ought to be remember-
ed, that the greatest part of the hearers are simple peo-
ple, whose profit, however, must be aimed at in preach-
ing: but it is impossible to edify them, unless you be
very clear. As to learned hearers, it is certain, they
will always prefer a clear before an obscure sermon ;
for, first, they will consider the simple, nor will their be-
nevolence be content if the illiterate be not edified ; and
next, they will be loth to be driven to the necessity of
giving too great an attention, which they cannot avoid,
if the preacher be obscure. The minds of men, wheth-
er learned or ignorant, generally avoid pain ; and the
learned have fatigue enough in the 'study, without in-
creasing it at church.
2. A sermon must give the entire sense of the whole
text, in order to which it must be considered in every
view. This rule condemns dry and barren explications.,
wherein the preacher discovers neither study nor inven-
tion, and leaves unsaid a great number of beautiful things,
with which his text would have furnished him. Preach-
220 AN ESSAY ON THE
ments of this kind are extremely disgustful ; the mind is
neither elevated, nor informed, nor is the heart at all
moved. In matters of religion and piety, not to edify
much, is to destroy much ; and a sermon cold and poor
will do more mischief in an hour, than a hundred rich
sermons can do good. I do not mean, that a preacher
should always use his utmost efforts, nor that he should
always preach alike well ; for that neither can nor ought
to he. There are extraordinary occasions, for which all
his vigour must be reserved. But I mean, that, in ordi-
nary and usual sermons, a kind of plenitude should satis-
fy and content the hearers. The preacher must not al-
ways labour to carry the people beyond themselves, nor
to ravish them into extacies : but he must always satis-
fy them, and maintain in them an esteem and an eager-
ness for practical piety.
3. The preacher must be wise, sober, chaste. I say
wise, in opposition to those impertinent people, who utter
. jests, comical comparisons, quirks and extravagancies ;
and such are a great part of the preachers of the church
of Rome. I say sober, in opposition to those rash spir-
its, who would penetrate all, and curiously dive into mys-
teries beyond the bounds of modesty. Such are those,
who make no difficulty of delivering in the pulpit all the
speculations of the schools, on the mysitery of the trinity,
the incarnation, the eternal reprobation of mankind ;
such as treat of questions beyond our knowledge ; viz.
What would have been if Adam had abode in innocence ;
what the state of souls after death ; or what the resur-
rection ; and our state of eternal glory in paradise.
Such are they, who fill their sermons with the different
interpretations of a term, or the different opinions of in-
terpreters on any passage of scripture ; who load their
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 221
hearers with tedious recitals of ancient history ; or on
account of the divers heresies which hare troubled the
church upon any matter ; all these are contrary to the
sobriety of which we speak, and which is one of the most
excellent pulpit virtues. I say farther chaste, in oppo-
sition to those bold and impudent geniuses who are not
ashamed of saying many things, which produce unclean
ideas in the mind. Chastity should weigh the expres-
sions, and make a judicious choice, in order to keep the>
hearers' minds at the greatest distance from all sorts of
carnal and terrestrial ideas. The likeliest way of suc-
ceeding in these cases is to beware of pressing metaphor-
ical terms too far ; to adhere to general considerations,
and if possible to explain the metaphorical terms in
few words, and afterwards to cleave entirely to the thing
itself.
4. A preacher must be simple and grave. Simple,
speaking things full of good natural sense without meta-
physical speculations ; for none are more impertinent
than they, who deliver in the pulpit abstract specula-
tions, definitions in form, and scholastic questions, which
they pretend to derive from their texts ; as, on the
manner of the existence of angels ; the means whereby
they communicate their ideas to each other ; the manner
in which ideas eternally subsist in the divine understand-
ing ; with many more of the same class, all certainly op-
posite to simplicity. To simple I add grave, because all
sorts of mean thoughts and expressions, all sorts of vul-
gar and proverbial sayings, ought to be avoided. The
pulpit is the seat of good natural sense ; and the good
sense of good men. On the one hand then, you are not
to philosophize too much, and refine your subject out of
222 AN ESSAY ON THE
sight ; nor, on the other, to abase yourself to the lan-
guage and thoughts of the dregs of the people.
5. The. understanding must be informed, but in a
manner, however, which affects the heart ; either to com-
fort the hearers, or to excite them to acts of piety, re-
pentance or holiness. There are two ways of doing this,
one formal, in turning the subject to moral uses, and so
applying it to the hearers ; the other in the simple choice
of the things spoken; for if they be good, solid, evan-
gelic, and edifying of themselves, should no application
be formally made, the auditors would make it them-
selves ; because subjects of this kind are of such a na-
ture, that they cannot enter the understanding without
penetrating the heart. I do not blame the method of
some preachers, who, when they have opened some
point of doctrine, or made some important observation,
immediately turn it into a brief moral application to the
hearers ; this Mr. Daille frequently did : yet I think it
should not be made a constant practice, because, 1st,
what the hearer is used to, he will be prepared for, and
so it will lose its effect ; and 2dly, because you would
thereby interrupt your explication, and consequently al-
so the attention of the hearer, which is a great incon-
venience. Nevertheless, when it is done but seldom,
and seasonably, great advantage may be reaped.
6. One of the most important precepts for the dis-
cussion of a text, and the composition of a sermon, is,
above all things, to avoid excess : J\e quid nimis.
1. There must not be too much genius ; I mean, not
too many brilliant, sparkling, and striking things ; for
they would .produce very bad effects. The auditor will
never fail to say, The man preaches himself, aims to
display his genius, and is not animated by the spirit of
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. * 223
God, but by that of the world. Besides, the hearer
would be overcharged ; the mind of man has its bounds
and measures, and as the eye is dazzled with too strong
a light, so is the mind offended with the glare of too
great an assemblage of beauties. Farther, it would des-
troy the principal end of preaching, which is to sanctify
the conscience ; for when the mind is overloaded with
too many agreeable ideas, it has not leisure to reflect on
the objects 5 and, without reflection, the heart is unaf-
fected.
2. A sermon must not be overcharged with doctrine,
because the hearers' memories cannot retain it all, and
by aiming to keep all, they will lose all ; and because
you will be obliged either to be excessively tedious, or
to propose the doctrine in a dry, barren, scholastic man-
ner, which will deprive it of all its beauty and efficacy.
A sermon should instruct, please and affect ; that is, it
should always do these as much as possible. As the
doctrinal part, which is instructive, should always be
proposed in an agreeable and affecting manner ; so the
agreeable parts should be proposed in an instructive man-
ner; and even in the conclusion, which is designed wholly
to affect, agreeableness must not be neglected, nor alto-
gether instruction. Take care, then, not to charge your
sermon with too much matter.
3. Care must also be taken never to strain any par-
ticular part, either in attempting to exhaust it, or to
penetrate too far into it If you aim at exhausting a
subject, you will be obliged to heap up a number of
common things without choice or discernment; if at
penetrating, you cannot avoid falling into many curious
questions, and unedifying subtilties ; and frequently in
attempting it you will distil the subject till it evaporates.
224 AN ESSAY ON THE
4. Figures must not be overstrained. This is done bjr
stretching metaphor into allegory, or by carrying a par-
allel too far. A metaphor is changed into an allegory,
when a number of things are heaped up, which agree to
the subject, in keeping close to the metaphor. As in
explaining this text, God is a sun and a shield ; it
would be stretching the metaphor into an allegory to
make a great collection of what God is in himself;
what to us ; what he does m^.the understanding and
conscience of the believer :|imat he operates on the
*3&&i?'~'*'?'
wicked ; what his absence : ^|pE^eth ; and all these
under terms, which had a perpetual relation to the
sun. Allegories may be sometimes used very agree-
ably ; but they must not be strained, that is, all, that
can be said on them, must not be said. A parallel is
run too far, when a great number of conformities be-
tween the figure, and the thing represented by the fig-
ure, are heaped together. This is almost the perpetual
vice of mean and low preachers ; for when they catch a
figurative word, or a metaphor, as when God's word is
called a fire, or a sword ; or the church a house, or a
dove ; or Jesus Christ a light, a sun, a vine, or a door ;
they never fail making a long detail of conformities be-
tween the figures and the subjects themselves ; and fre-
quently say ridiculous things. This vice must be avoid-
ed, and you must be content to explain the metaphor in
a few words, and to mark the principal agreements, in
order afterward to cleave to the thins; itself.
O
5. Reasoning must not be carried too Jar. This may
be done many ways ; either by long trains of reasons,
composed of a quantity of propositions chained together,
or principles and consequences ; which way of reasoning
is embarrassing and painful to the auditor j or by mak-
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 225
ing many branches of reasons, and establishing them one
after another ; which is tiresome and fatiguing to the
mind. The mind of man loves to be conducted in a
more smooth and easy way ; all must not be proved at
once ; but, supposing principles, which are true and
plain, and which you, when it is necessary, are capable
of proving and supporting, you must be content with
using them to prove what you have in hand. Yet I do
not mean, that in reasoning, arguments should be so
short and dry, and prpt^ed in so brief a manner as to
i 1 %^V'f'-t*BLV
divest the truth o^Sl^^ force, as many authors leave
-'' *^tJpf'*~
them. I only meafi^fnlt a due medium should be pre-
served ; that is, that without fatiguing the mind and at-
tention of the hearer, reasons should be placed in just as
much force and clearness, as are necessary to produce
the effect.
Reasoning also may be overstrained by heaping
great numbers of proofs on the same subject. Nume-
rous proofs are intolerable, except in a principal matter,
which is like to be much questioned or controverted by
the hearers. In such a case you would be obliged to
treat the subject fully and ex professo ; otherwise the
hearers would consider your attempt to prove the matter
as an useless digression. But when you are obliged to
treat a subject fully, when that subject is very impor-
tant, when it is doubted and controverted, then a great
number of proofs are proper. In such a case you must
propose to convince and bear down the opponent's judg-
ment, by making truth triumph in many different man-
ners. In such a case, many proofs associated together
to produce one effect, ar Uke many rays of light, which
naturally strengthen each other, and which all together
form a body of brightness, which is irresistible.
29
226 AN ESSAY ON THE
6. You must as much as possible abstain from all
sorts of observations foreign from theology.. In this class
I place, 1. Grammatical observations of every kind, which
not being within the people's knowledge can only wea-
ry and disgust them. They may nevertheless be used
when they furnish an agreeable sense of the word, or
open some important observation on the subject itself,
provided it to be done very seldom and very pertinently.
2. Critical observations about different readings, dif-
ferent punctuations, &c. must be avoided. Make all the
use you can of critical knowledge yourself; but spare
the people the account, for it must needs be very disa-
greeable to them.
I add, 3dly. Avoid 'philosophical and historical ob-
servations^ and all such as belong to Rhetoric ; or, if you
do use them, do not insist on them, and choose only
those, which give either some light to the text, or
heighten its pathos and beauty; all others must be re-
jected.
Lastly. I say the same of passages from Profane
^Authors, or Rabbies, or Fathers, with which many think
they enrich their sermons. This farrago is only a vain
ostentation of learning, and, very often they who fill their
sermons with such quotations, know them only by rela-
tion of others. However, I would not blame a man who
should use them discreetly. A quotation not common,
and properly made, fyas a very good effect
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 227
CHAP. III.
i.
OP CONNEXION.
THE connexion is the relation of your text ,to the
foregoing or following verses. To find this, consider
the scope of the discourse, and consult commentators ;
particularly exercise your own good sense ; for commen-
tators frequently trifle, and give forced and far-fetched
connexions, all which ought to be avoided, for they are
not natural, and sometimes good sense will discover the
scope and design of a writer far better than this kind of
writers.
There are texts, the connexions of which (I own) it
will be sometimes difficult to perceive. In such a case
endeavour to discover them by frequent and intense
meditation, or take that, which commentators furnish ;
and among many, which they give, choose that, which ap-
pears most natural ; and if you can find none likely, the
best way will be to let the passage alone. The connex-
ion is a part, which must be very little insisted on, be-
cause the hearers almost always pass it over, and re-
ceive but little instruction from it.
When the coherence will furnish any agreeable con-
siderations for the illustration of the text, they must be
put in the discussion ; and this will very often happen.
Sometimes also you may draw thence an exordium : in
such a case the exordium and connexion will be con-
founded together.
228 AN ESSAY ON THE
CHAP. IV.
OF DIVISION.
DIVISION, in general, ought to be restrained to a small
number of parts : they should never exceed four or five
at the most ; the most admired sermons have only two
or three parts.*
There are two sorts of divisions, which we may very
properly make ; the first, which is the most common, is
the division of the text into its parts ; the other is of the
discourse, or sermon itself, which is made on the text.t
I, The division of a discourse, is proper, when, to
give light to a text, it is necessary to mention many
things, which the text supposes but does not formally
express ; and which must be collected elsewhere, in or-
der to enable you to give in the end a just explication of
the text. In such a ca.se you may divide your discourse
into two parts, the first containing some general considr
crations necessary for understanding the text ; and the
second the particular explication of the text itself.
1. This method is proper when a prophecy of the Old
Testament is handled ; for generally, the understanding of
* A proper method of division may be seen in the following specimen from
Cicero.
Causa quas sit videtis ; nunc quid agendum sit considerate. Primum mini
videtur de genere belli ; deinde de magnitudine ; turn de imperatore deligendo
esse dicendum. Primum bellum Asiaticum genere suo grave et necessarium es-
se. 1. Quia agitur gloria pop. Rom. 2. Quia agitur salus sociorum. 3. Quia
aguntur vectigalia maxima. 4. Quia aguntur fortunse multorum civium. . . .
Tertium Pompeius est bonus imperator, quia in eo sunt quaiuor virtutes, quae-
bonum imperatorem commendant. 1. Scientia rei militaris. 2. Virtua. 3.
Auctoritas. 4. Felicitas. Pro lege Manilia.
t These may be called textual and topical.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 229
these prophecies depends on many general considera-
tions, which, by exposing and refuting false senses, open
a way to the true explication ; as appears by what has
been said on Gen. iii. 15 ; "I will put enmity between
thee, and the woman ; and between thy seed, and her
seed ; it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his
heel ;" and on the covenant made with Abraham, &c.*
2. This method is also proper on a text taken from a
dispute, the understanding of which must depend on the
state of the question, the hypotheses of adversaries,
and the principles of the inspired writers. All these
lights are previously necessary, and they can only be
given by general considerations : For example, Rom. iii.
28. " We conclude that a man is justified by faith with-
out the deeds of the law." Some general considerations
must precede, which clear up the state of the question
between St. Paul and the Jews, touching justification ;
which mark the hypothesis of the Jews upon that subject,
and which discover the true principle, which St. Paul
would establish ; so that in the end the text may be
clearly understood.
3. This method also is proper in a conclusion drawn
from along preceding discourse ; as for example, Rom.
v. i. " Therefore being justified by faith we have peace
with God, through our Lord Jesus Christ." Some think
that, to manage this text well, we ought not to speak of
justification by faith ; but only of that peace, which we
have with God, through our Lord Jesus Christ. I grant,
we ought not to make justification the chief part of the
sermon ; but. the text is a conclusion drawn by the apos-
tle from the preceding discourse ; and we shall deceive
? These general considerations appear belter still in an exordium.
230 AN ESSAY ON THE
ourselves, if we imagine this dispute between St. Paul
and the Jews so well known to the people, that it is
needless to speak of it ; they are not, in general, so well
acquainted with scripture. The discourse then must be
divided into two parts, the first consisting of some gene-
ral considerations on the doctrine of justification, which
St. Paul establishes in the preceding chapters ; and the
second, of his conclusion, That, being thus justified, we
have peace with God, <&&> ;.- "
The same may be said of the first verse of the viii.
of Romans, " There is therefore now no condemnation to
them, that are in Christ Jesus, who walk not after the
flesh, but after the Spirit ;" for it is a consequence drawn
from what he had been establishing before.
4. The same method is proper for texts, which are
quoted in the New Testament from the Old You must
prove by general considerations, that the text is properly
produced, and then you may come clearly to its explica-
tion. Of this kind are Heb. i. 5, 6. " I will be to him a
father and he shall be to me a son :" ii. 6. " One in a
certain place testified, saying, What is man that thou
art mindful of him ?" iii. 7. " Wherefore, as the Holy
Ghost saith, To-day if ye will hear his voice, harden not
your hearts." There are many passages of this kind in
the New Testament.
5. In this class must be placed divisions into different
respects, or different views. These, to speak properly,
are not divisions of a text into its parts, but rather dif-
ferent applications, which are made of the same text to
divers subjects. Typical texts should be divided thus ;
and a great number of passages in the Psalms, which re-
late not only to David, but also to Jesus Christ ; such
should be considered, first, literally, as they relate to
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 231
David ; and then, in their mystical sense, as they refer
to the Lord Jesus.
There are also typical passages, which beside their
literal senses have also figurative meanings, relating not
only to Jesus Christ, but also to the church in general,
and to every believer in particular ; or which have dif-
ferent degrees of their mystical accomplishment.*
For example, Dan ix. 7. " O Lord, righteousness
belongeth unto thee, but unto us confusion of face as at
this day:" (which is a very proper text for a fast-
day,) must not be divided into parts ; but considered in
different views. 1. In regard to all men in general. 2. In
regard to the Jewish church in Daniel's time. And, 3. In
regard to ourselves at this present day.
II. As to the division of the text itself, sometimes the
order of the words is so clear and natural, that no divis-
ion is necessary ; you need only follow simply the order
of the words. As for example, Eph. i. 3. " Blessed be
the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath
blessed us with all spiritual blessings in heavenly places
in Christ." It is not necessary to divide this text, be-
cause the words divide themselves ; and to explain them
we need only follow them. Here is a grateful ac-
knowledgment, blessed be God. The title, under which
the apostle, blesses God, the Father of our Lord Jesus
Christ. The reason, for which he blesses him, because
he hath blessed us. The plenitude of this blessing, with
all blessings. The nature or kind, signified by the term,
spiritual. The place, where he hath blessed us, in heav-
enly places. In whom he hath blessed us, in Christ.
* Types should be handled cautiously, and soberly, and always under the
immediate direction of the New Testament writers. A man is always safe when
he follows these guides.
230 AS ESSAY ON THE
ourselves, if we imagine this dispute between St. Paul
and the Jews so well known to the people, that it is
needless to speak of it ; they are not, in general, so well
acquainted with scripture. The discourse then must be
divided into two parts, the first consisting of some gene-
ral considerations on the doctrine of justification, which
St. Paul establishes in the preceding chapters ; and the
second, of his conclusion, That, being thus justified, we
have peace with God, &c.
The same may be said of the first verse of the viii.
of Romans, " There is therefore now no condemnation to
them, that are in Christ Jesus, who walk not after the
flesh, but after the Spirit ;" for it is a consequence drawn
from what he had been establishing before.
4. The same method is proper for texts, which are
quoted in the New Testament from the Old You must
prove by general considerations, that the text is properly
produced, and then you may come clearly to its explica-
tion. Of this kind are Heb. i. 5, 6. " I will be to him a
father and he shall be to me a son :" ii. 6. " One in a
certain place testified, saying, What is man that thou
art mindful of him ?" iii. 7. * Wherefore, as the Holy
Ghost saith, To-day if ye will hear his voice, harden not
your hearts." There are many passages of this kind in
the New Testament.
5. In this class must be placed divisions into different
respects, or different views. These, to speak properly,
are not divisions of a text into its parts, but rather dif-
ferent applications, which are made of the same text to
divers subjects. Typical texts should be divided thus ;
and a great number of passages in the Psalms, which re-
late not only to David, but also to Jesus Christ ; such
should be considered, first, literally, as they relate to
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON, 231
David ; and then, in their mystical sense, as they refer
to the Lord Jesus.
There are also typical passages, which beside their
literal senses have also figurative meanings, relating not
only to Jesus Christ, but also to the church in general,
and to every believer in particular ; or which have dif-
ferent degrees of their mystical accomplishment.*
For example, Dan ix. 7. " O Lord, righteousness
belongeth unto thee, but unto us confusion of face as at
this day :" (which is a very proper text for a fast-
day,) must not be divided into parts ; but considered in
different views. I. In regard to all men in general. 2. In
regard to the Jewish church in Daniel's time. And, 3. In
regard to ourselves at this present day.
II. As to the division of the text itself, sometimes the
order of the words is so clear and natural, that no divis-
ion is necessary ; you need only follow simply the order
of the words. As for example, Eph. i. 3. " Blessed be
the God arid Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, Avho hath
blessed us with all spiritual blessings in heavenly places
in Christ." It is not necessary to divide this text, be-
cause the words divide themselves ; and to explain them
we need only follow them. Here is a grateful ac-
knowledgment, blessed be God. The title, under which
the apostle blesses God, the Father of our Lord Jesus
Christ. The reason, for which he blesses him, because
he hath blessed us. The plenitude of this blessing, with
all blessings. The nature or kind, signified by the term.
spiritual. The place, where he hath blessed us, in heav-
enly places. In whom he hath blessed us, in Christ.
* Types should be handled cautiously, and soberJy, and always under the
immediate direction of the New Testament writers, A man is always safe when
he follows these guides.
i?
232 ' AN ESSAY ON TIlE
Most texts, however, ought to be formally divided ;
for which purpose you must principally have regard to
the order of nature, and put that division^ which natural-
ly precedes, in the first place ; and the rest must follow,
each in its proper order. This may easily be done by
reducing the text to a categorical proposition, beginning
with the subject, passing to the attribute, and then to
the other terms ; your judgment will direct you how to
place them,*
* Oratio cujus summa virtus eat perspicuitas, quam sit vitiosa si egeatinter-
prete ! Quint. Inst. lib. i. c. 4.
Allowing that tests are to be divided after reducing them to categorical, i. e.
to single propositions, either simple, the subjects and predicates of which consist
of single terms ; or complex, the subjects aud predicates of which are made up
of complex terms ; allowing that the subject is to be considered first, then the
attributes, which in logic are the same with predicates, or what may be affirmed
or denied of any subject ; allowing all this, yet it must not be forgotten that this
operation, and these terms belong to the laboratory, and should never appear in
.prescriptions to the people; especially as Mr, Claude's proposed end maybe
better answered without them. He aims to make divisions natural ; here is an
example.
Archbishop Flechier, on Saul's conversion, considers, first, what Jesus Christ
did for Si. Paul. 2. What St. Paul did for Jesus Christ. In the first part he
opens divine compassion, as a spring whence flowed Paul's creation, preservation,
conversion, gifts, graces, usefulness, &c. The second part relates the use that
St. Paul made of all these out of gratitude, and to God's glory. FlecJi. Ser. torn. i.
The Archbishop of Cambray, Fenelon, (preaching to a religious order, some
of whom had been employed in missions to the East, from Isa. Ix. 1 . Arise, shine,
for thy light is come, &c. introduces his division thus ; ' But I feel my heart
moved within me ; it is divided between joy and grief; the ministry of these
apostolic men, and the call of these Eastern people, are the triumphs of religion;
bat perhaps they may also be the effects of a secret reprobation, which bangs
over us. Perhaps these people may rise upon our ruins, as the Gentiles rose
upon the ruins of the Jews. Let us then rejoice in the Lord ; but let us rejoice
with trembling. These two exhortations divide my discourse. Fenel. Oeuvr.
torn. ii.
Bishop Massillon, preaching to his clergy, on Luke ii. 34, "This child is set
for the fall and rising again of many in Israel," after an agreeable exordium,
says, ' Let us pass all other reasons of this mystery, and confine ourselves to one
single truth, which regards ourselves.' He then accommodates the words to
every minister entering on his holy office, adding, * for on this solemn occasion
it may be said of him, Behold this man is set for the fall, or rising again of many
COMtfOSlTIOtf 6 A SERMON. 233
It remains to be observed, that there are two natu-
ral orders^ one natural in regard to subjects themselves,
the other natural in regard to us. The first considers
every thing in its natural situation, as things are in them-
selves^ without any regard to our knowledge of them ;
the other, which I call natural in regard to us, observes
the situation, which things have as they appear in our
minds, or enter into our thoughts.
When in any text the natural order of things differs
from that, which regards our knowledge of them, we
may take that way, which we like best ; however, I be-
lieve, it would be best to follow that of our knowledge,
because it is easiest, and > clearest for the common peo-
ple.
There are texts, which contain the end and the
means ; the cause and the effect ; the principle and the '
consequence deduced from the principle ; the action and
the principle of the action ; the occasion and the motive
of the occasion : in these cases it is arbitrary either to
begin with the means, and afterwards treat of the end ;
with the effect, and proceed to the cause, and so on ; or
to follow the contrary order. For instance, 2 Tim. ii.
10. " Therefore I endure all things for the elect's sake,
that they may also obtain the salvation which is in Christ
with eternal glory." It is plain^ that the text has three
in Israel; he comes to be the instrument of the perdition, or the salvation of ma-
ny. On this terrible alternative runs the destiny of a minister, and it is literally
true of every one of you, that you already are, or are about to be established to
build up, or to pull down ; to rid the church of scandals, or to cause new ones;
to save or to destroy; in one word, to be a savour of life unto life, or of death
unto death among the people ; these are the two parts, &c.'
I will not say that these gentlemen did not reduce their texts to categorical
propositions in private, in the study ; but I may venture to say, if they did, they
brought them to a right issue in the pulpit. And this I think is Mr. Claude's
meaning. Robinson,
30
234 AN ESSAY ON THE
parts 5 the sifferings of the apostle ; the end he propos-
es j and the principle, from which he proposes this end.
The order is then arbitrary ; you may either speak, first
of St. Paul's love to the elect ; secondly of the salvation,
which he desired they might obtain in Jesus Christ ; and
thirdly, of the sufferings, which he endured in order to
their obtaining it ; or, first of his sufferings ; secondly of
the end, which he proposed in them, the salvation of the
elect with eternal glory ; and thirdly, of his love for the
elect, which is the principle.
But though, in general, you may follow which of the
two orders you please, yet there are some texts, that de-
termine the division ; as Phil. ii. 13. " It is God who
worketh effectually in you, both to will, and to do, of his
own good pleasure." There are, it is plain, three things
to be discussed ; the action of God's grace upon men,
God worketh effectually in you ; the effect of this grace, to
loill and to do ; and the spring or source of the action,
according to his good pleasure. I think the division would
not be proper if we were to treat, 1. Of God's good
pleasure. 2. Of his grace. And 3. Of the will and works
of men. I should rather begin with volition and action,
which are the effects of grace ; then I should speak of
the grace itself, which produces willing and doing in us
effectually ; and lastly, of the source of this grace, which
is the good pleasure of God. In short, it is always ne-
cessary to consult good sense, and never to be so con-
ducted by general rules as not to attend to particular
circumstances.
Above all things, in divisions, take care of putting
any thing in the first part, which supposes the under-
standing of the second, or which obliges you to treat of
the second to make the first understood ; for by these
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 235
means you will throw yourself into a great confusion, and
be obliged to make many tedious repetitions. You must
endeavour to disengage the one from the other as well
as you can ; and when your parts are too closely con-
nected with each other, place the most detached first,
and endeavour to make that serve for a foundation to
the explication of the second, and the second to the
third ; so that at the end of your explication the hearer
may with a glance perceive, as it were, a perfect body,
or a finished building ; for one of the greatest excel-
lencies of a sermon is, the harmony of its component
parts, that the first leads to the second, the second
serves to introduce the third ; that, they which go be-
fore, excite a desire for those, which are to follow ; and,
in a word, that the last has a special relation v to all the
others, in order to form in the hearer's mind a com-
plete idea of the whole.
This cannot be done with all sorts of texts, but with
those only, which are proper to form such a design upon.
Remember, too, it is not enough to form such a plan ; it
must also be happily executed.
You will often find it necessary in texts, which you
reduce to categorical propositions, to treat of the subject,
as well as of the attribute ; then you must make of the
subject one part. This will always happen, when the
subject of the proposition is expressed in terms, that
want explaining, or which furnish many considerations :
For example ; " He that abideth in me, and I in him,
the same bringeth forth much fruit." This is a categor-
ical proposition, and you must needs treat of the subject,
he who abides in Jesus Christ, and in whom Jesus Christ
abides. So again, " He that believeth in me, hath ev-
erlasting life," " He that eateth my flesh, and drinketh
236 AN ESSAY ON THE
my blood, abideth in me, and I in him." " There is
therefore now no condemnation to them, that are in
Christ Jesus, who walk not after the flesh, but after the
Spirit." " If any man be in Christ, he is a new crea-
ture." The two last ought to be reduced to categorical
propositions, the subjects of which are, they who are in
Christ. In these, and in ajl others of the same kind,
the subject must make one part, and must also be con-
sidered first, for it is more natural, as well as most agree-
able to the rules of logic, to begin with the subject of a
proposition. Sometimes it is necessary not only to make
one part of the subject, and another of the attribute ;
but also to make a third of the connexion of the subject
with the attribute. In this case, you may say, after you
have observed in the first place the subject, and in the
second the attribute, that you will consider in the third
the entire sense of the whole proposition; this must be
done in these texts ; " If any man be in Christ, he is a
new creature." " He, that believeth in me, hath eter-
nal life," &c.
Sometimes there are, in texts reduced to categorical
propositions, terms, which in the schools are called syn-
categorematica, and they relate sometimes to the "sub-
ject and sometimes to the attribute.*
When in a text there are several terms, which need
a particular explanation, and which cannot be explained
without confusion, or without dividing the text into too
many parts, then I would not divide the text at all : but I
would divide the discourse into two or three parts ; and
I would propose, first to explain the terms, and then the
subject itself. This would be necessary on Acts ii. 27;
* St/ncalcgorematica. Of this kind are those words, which of themselves sig-
aify nothing, but in conjunction with others in a proposition are very significant,
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 237
" Thou wilt not leave my soul in the grave, neither wilt
thou suffer thy Holy One to see corruption." To discuss
this text properly, I think, the discourse should be divid-
ed into three parts, the first consisting of some general
considerations, to prove that the text relates to Jesus
Christ, and that Peter alleged it properly : The second
of some particular considerations on the terms, soul, which
signifies life ; grave, which also signifies hell ; on which
the church of Rome grounds her opinion of Christ's de-
scent into, what her divines call limbus patrum ; holy,
which in this place signifies immortal, unalterable, inde-
structible ; corruption, which means not the moral cor-
ruption of sin, but the natural corruption of the body.
Finally, we must examine the subject itself, the resurrec-
tion of Jesus Christ.
In texts of reasoning, the propositions which compose
the syllogism must be examined one after another, and
each apart.
Sometimes it will be even necessary to consider the
force of the reasoning, and to make one part of that also.
There are texts of reasoning, which are composed
of an objection and the answer, and the division of such
is plain ; for they naturally divide into the objection and
the solution. As Rom. vi. 1, 2. " What shall we say
then, shall we continue in sin, that grace may abound ?
God forbid : how shall we, that are dead to sin, live any
longer therein ?" Divide this into two parts, the objec-
tion, and the answer. The objection is, first, proposed
* in general terms, what shall we say then f 2. In "more
particular terms, shall we continue in sin ? And, 3. The
reason and ground of the objection, because grace abounds.
The solution of the question is the same. In general.
God forbid. In particular, how shall ive live in sin 9
And the reason, we are dead to sin.
238 AN ESSAY ON THE
There are some texts of reasoning, which are extreme-
ly difficult to divide, because they cannot be reduced to
many propositions without confusion, or savouring too
much of the schools, or having a defect in the division ;
in short, without being unsatisfactory. In such a case,
let ingenuity and good sense contrive some extraordina-
ry way, which, if proper and agreeable, cannot fail of
producing a good effect. For example, John iv. 10.
" If thou knewest the gift of God, and who it is that saith
to thee", Give me to drink, thou wouldest have asked of
him, and he would have given thee living water :" I think
it might not be improper to divide it into two parts, the
first including the general propositions contained in the
words, and the second, the particular application of these
to the Samaritan woman. In the first, observe these
following propositions : That Jesus Christ is the gift of
God. That though he asked for drink, he is ihejfoun-
tain of living water himself. That he is the object of our
knowledge, both as the gift of God, and as the fount of
living water. That an application to him for this living
water, flows from our knowledge of him. That -he gives
the water of life to all, who ask it. In the second part
you may observe, that Jesus Christ did not disdain to
converse with a woman, a Samaritan woman, a schismatic,
out of the communion of the visible church, a very wick-
ed woman, a woman, who in her schism and sin disputed
against the truth. That Jesus Christ improved this op-
portunity to teach her his grace, without amusing him-
self with directly answering what she said. You may
remark the ignorance of this woman in regard to the Lord
Jesus ; she saw him ; she heard him ; but she did not
know him : from which you may observe, that this is the
general condition of sinners, who have God always be-
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 239
fore their eyes, yet never perceive him. That from the
woman's ignorance arose her negligence and loss of such
a fair opportunity of being instructed. Observe also the
mercy of Jesus Christ towards her ; for he even promis-
ed to save her. When he said, " If thou wouldest have
asked of him he would have given thee living water ;"
it was as much as if he had offered to instruct her.
Remark, too, that Jesus Christ went even so far as to
command her to ask him for living water 5 for when he
said, " If thou wouldest have asked him," he did as much
as say, ask him now. Observe, finally, that he excited
her to seek, and to know him, and removed her ignorance,
the cause of all her mistakes, and miseries.
There are sometimes texts which imply many impor-
tant truths without expressing them, and yet it will be
necessary to mention and enlarge upon them, either
because they are useful on some important occasion,
or because they are important of themselves. Then
the text must be divided into two parts, one implied, and
the other expressed. I own this way of division is bold,
and must neither be abused, nor too often used ; but
there are occasions, it is certain, on which it may be very
justly and agreeably taken. A certain preacher on a
fast-day, having taken for his subject these words of
Isaiah, " Seek the Lord while he may be found," divided
his text into two parts, one implied, the other expressed.
In the first he said, that there were three important
truths, of which he was obliged to speak : 1. That God
was far from its. 2. That we were far from him. And,
3. That there was a time, in which God would not be
found, although we sought him. He spoke of these one
after another. In the first he enumerated the afflictions
of the church, in a most affecting manner : observing
240 AN ESSAY ON THE
that all these sad events did but too plainly prove the
absence of the favour of God. 2. He enumerated the
sins of the church, and shewed how distant we were
from God. And in the third place he represented that
sad time, when God's patience was, as it were, wearied
out, and added, that then he displayed his heaviest judg-
ments without speaking any more the language of mer-
cy. At length coming to the part expressed, he explain-
ed what it was to seek the Lord, and by a pathetic ex-
hortation, stirred up his hearers to make that search-
Finally, he explained what was the time, in which God
would be found, and renewed his exhortations to repent"
ance, mixing therewith hopes of pardon, and of the bles-
sing* of God. His sermon was very much admired,, par-
ticularly for its order.
In texts of history, divisions are easy : sometimes an
action is related in all its circumstances, and then you may
consider the action in itself first, and afterward the cir-
cumstances of the action.
Sometimes it is necessary to remark the occasion of
an action, and to make one part of it.
Sometimes there are actions and words, which must
be considered separately.
Sometimes it is not necessary to make any division
at all : but the order of the history must be followed.
In short, it depends on the state of each text in particu-
lar.
III. To render a division agreeable, and easy to be
remembered by the hearer, endeavour to reduce it as
often as possible to simple terms. By a simple term I
mean a single word, in the same sense as in logic what they
call terminus simplex is distinguished from what they call
terminus complex. Indeed, when the parts of a discourse
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 241
arc expressed in abundance of words, they are not only
embarrassing, but also useless to the hearers, for they
cannot retain them. Reduce them then as often as you
can to a single term.
Observe also, as often as possible, to connect the parts
of your division together ; either by way of opposition,
or of cause and effect, or of action and end, or action
and motive, or in some way or other; for to make a di-
vision of many parts, which have no connexion, is exceed-
ingly offensive to the hearers, who will be apt to think,
that all you say, after such a division, is nonsense ; be-
sides, the human mind naturally loving order, it will
much more easily retain a division, in which there ap-
pears a connexion.*
As to subdivisions, it is always necessary to make
them ; for they very much assist composition, and dif-
fuse perspicuity through a discourse : but it is not always
needful to mention them ; on the contrary, they must be
very seldom mentioned ; because it would load the
hearer's mind with a multitude of particulars. Never-
theless, when subdivisions can be made agreeably, either
on account of the excellence of the matter, or when it
will raise the hearer's attention, or when the justness of
parts harmonize agreeably one with another, you may
formally mention them ; but this must be done very
seldom ; for the hearers would be presently tired of
such a method, and by that means cloyed of the whole.f
* This direction of Mr. Claude's, like most of his other rules, is founded on
the knowledge of human nature, which delights in orderly connexions, and is ex-
tremely disgusted with every thing incongruous. -> Robinson.
t Powerful reasoning should be the soul of all our sermons. Reasoning in el-
oquence is like love in religion ; without love you may have the shadow, but
you cannot have the substance of religion. Without love you are nothing; if
you have not love, your virtue is only noise, it is only as soundine brass and a
31
242 AN ESSAY ON THE
CHAP. V.
OP TEXTS TO BE DISCUSSED BY WAY OP EXPLICATION.
I PROCEED now from general to more particular rules,
and will endeavour to give some precepts for invention
and disposition.
I suppose, then, in the first place, that no man will
be so rash as to put pen to paper, or begin to discuss a
text, till he has well comprehended the sense of it. I
have given no rule about this before ; for a man, who
wants to be told, that he ought not to preach on a text,
before he understands it, ought at the same time to be
informed, that he is fitter for any other profession than
that of a minister.
I suppose, secondly, that the student, having well
understood, the sense of his text, begins by dividing it,
and that, having the several parts before his eyes, he
very nearly sees what are the subjects, which he will
have to discuss, and consequently, what ought to enter
into his composition.
I suppose, farther, that he is a man not altogether a
novice in divinity ; but that he is acquainted with com-
mon places, and the principal questions, of which they
treat.
Supposing all these, the first thing that I would have
such a man do, is to observe the nature of his text ; for
tinkling cymbal. In like manner in regard to eloquence, speak with authority^
open all the treasures of erudition, give full scope to a lively and sublime imagin-
ation, and harmonize your periods ; yet what will all your discourses without
reason be ? a noise, a sounding brass, a tinkling cymbal. You may confound, but
you cannot convince ; you may dazzle, but you cannot instruct ; you may delight,
but cannot hope to change, to sanctify, and to transform your hearers.
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 243
there are doctrinal, historical, prophetical, and typical
texts. Some contain a command, others a prohibition ;
some a promise, others a threatening; some a wish,
others an exhortation ; some a censure, others a motive
to action ; some a parable, some a reason ; some a com-
parison of two things together, some a vision, some
a thanksgiving ; some a description of the wrath, or ma-
jesty of God, of the sun, or some other thing ; a com-
mendation of the law, or of some person ; a prayer ; an
amplification of joy, or affliction ; a pathetic exclama-
tion of anger, sorrow, admiration, imprecation, repent-
ance, confession of faith, patriarchal or pastoral bene-
diction, consolation, &c. I take the greatest part to be
mixed, containing different kinds of things. It is very
important for a man, who would compose, to examine
his text well upon these articles, and carefully to dis-
tinguish all its characters, for in so doing he will pres-
ently see what way he ought to take.
Having well examined of what kind the text is, en-
ter into the matter, and begin the composition ; for
which purpose you must observe, there are two general
ways, or two manners of composing. One is the way of
explication, the other of observations ; nor must it be im-
agined, that you may take which of the two ways you
please on every text, for some texts must be treated in
the explicatory method, and others necessarily require
the way of observations. When you have a point of
doctrine to treat of, you must have recourse to explica-
tion, and when a text of history, the only way is obser-
vation.
In discernment upon this article the judgment of a
man consists ; for as texts of scripture are almost infinite,
it is impossible to give perfect rules thereupon ; it de-
244 . AN ESSAY ON THE
pends in general on good sense ; only this I say, when
we treat of a plain subject, common and known, to all
the world, it is a great absurdity to take the way of
explication ; and when we have to treat of a difficult or
important subject, which requires explaining, it would
be equally ridiculous to take the way of observations.
The difficulty, of which we speak, may be consider-
ed, either in regard to the terms of the text only, the
subject itself being clear, after the words are explained ;
or in regard ^o the subject only, the terms themselves
being very intelligible ; or in regard to both terms and
things.
If the terms be obscure, we must endeavour to give
the true sense : but if they be clear, it would be trifling
to affect to make them so ; and we must pass on to the
difficulty, which is in the subject itself. If the subject
be clear, we must explain the terms, and give the true
sense of the words. If there appear any absurdity or
difficulty in both, both must be explained : but always
begin with explanation of the terms.
In the explication of the terms, first propose what
they call ratio dubitandi, that is, whatever makes the
difficulty. The reason of doubting, or the intricacy,
arises often from several causes. Either the terms do
not seem to make any sense at all ; or they are equivo-
cal, forming different senses : or the sense, which they
seem at first to make, may be perplexed, improper, or
contradictory ; or the meaning, though clear in itself,
may be controverted, and exposed to cavillers. In all
these cases, after you have proposed the difficulty, de-
termine it as briefly as you can ; for which purpose avail
yourself of criticisms, notes, comments, paraphrases, &c.
and, in one word, of the labours of other persons.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 245
If none of these answer your expectation, endeavour
to find something better yourself; to which purpose,
examine all the circumstances of the text, what pre-
cedes, what follows, the general scope of the discourse,
the particular design of the writer in the place, where
your text is, the subject of which it treats, parallel pas-
sages of scripture, which treat of the same subject,
or those in which the same expressions are used,
c. and by these means it is almost impossible, that you.
should not content yourself. Above all, take care not
to make of grammatical matters a principal part : but
only treat of them as previously necessary for under-
standing the text.
To proceed from terms to things. They must, as I
have said, be explained, when they are either difficult
or important. There are several ways of explication.
You may begin by refuting errors, into which people
have .fallen ; or you may fall upon the subject immedi-
ately* and so come to a fair and precise declaration of
the truth, and, after this, you may dilate, (if I may ven-
ture to say so) by a deduction of the principles, on which
the text depends, and on the essential relations, in which
it ought to be considered.
o
The same method must be taken, \vhen texts are
misunderstood, and gross and pernicious errors adduced.
In such a case, first reject the erroneous sense, and (if
necessary) even refute it, as well by reasons taken from
the texts, as by arguments from other topics, and at
length establish the true sense.
O
I would advise the same method for all disputed tcxis.
Hold it as a maxim, to begin to open the way to a truth by
rejecting a falsehood. Not that it can be always done ;
sometimes you must-begin by explaining the truth, and
afterwards reject the error ; because there are certain
246 AN ESSAY ON THE
occasions, on which the hearers' minds must be pre-occu-
pied, and because also truth, well proposed and fully
established, naturally destroys error : but, notwithstand-
ing this, the most approved method is to begin by re-
jecting error. After all, it must be left to a man's judg-
ment when he ought to take different courses.
There are texts of explication, in which the difficul-
ty arises neither from equivocal terms, nor from the
different senses, in which they may be taken, nor from
objections, which may be formed against them, nor from
the abuse, which heretics have made of them ; but
from the intricacy of the subject itself, which may be dif-
ficult to comprehend, and may require great study and
meditation. On such texts you need not, you must not
amuse yourself in proposing difficulties, nor in making ob-
jections : but you must enter immediately into the explica-
tion of the matter, and take particular care to arrange your
ideas well, that is to, say, in a natural and easy order,
beginning where you ought to begin ; for if you do not
begin right you can do nothing to the purpose ; and on
the contrary, if you take a right road, all will appear
easy as you go on to the end.
If, for example, I were to preach from this text,
" The law was given by Moses ; but grace and truth
came by Jesus Christ ; I would divide this text into two
parts. The first should regard the ministry of the law ;
the second, that of the gospel : the one expressed in
these words, " the law was given by Moses ;" the other
in these, " Grace and truth came by Jesus Christ." I
should subdivide the first into two parts, the law, and
its author, Moses.*
* Instead of the remarks on this passage, which in Robinson's Claude occupy
forty six pages, Mr. Simeon's abridgement is here inserted, in the form of a
ular scheme*
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 24?
I. The ministry of the law.
The law may be considered as a ministry of Rigour,
as opposed to Grace.
[Man knew neither himself nor his God
It was necessary therefore to discover to him his misery, and his duty-
This was the end which God proposed in the ministry of the law
The ministration of the law was well calculated to answer this end* ]
It may be considered also as a ministry of Shadows*
as opposed to Truth.
[It held out Promises of what was afterwards to be accomplishedt
It exhibited in Types the mercies which God had in reserve for them
It imparted the Beginnings of that salvation, which was to be afterwards
more largely bestowed
Yet it could only be called " Law," because, however the Grace of the
Gospel was blended with that economy, the legal part waa predomi-
nant ]
The author or dispenser of this law was Moses.
[God indeed was the first and principal author of this law
Moses was only the Mediator by whom God dispensed it
Nor as a Mediator was He a real, but only a typical Mediator.!]
As the dispenser of it He was greatly honoured by
God.
[He was the Interpreter of the Israelites to God, and of God to them$
He was employed to show forth the Mighty Power of Jehovah
He was inspired to transmit in loriting the history of his own nation "}
* God awfully displayed his own majesty on Mount Sinai ; and by the per-
fect law which he promulgated, He showed at once what a creature ought to do,
and what a sinner must expect. And while by the ceremonial law he declared
the necessity of an Atonement, he loaded the Israelites with an insupportable
yoke of ceremonies, enforcing the observance of them by the severest penalties ;
and gave just such a portion of his Spirit, as might enable them to see their
guilt and misery, and dispose them to receive the promised Messiah.
t Gen. iii. 15. and xlix. 10. Deut. xviii. 15.
; To prevent entirely the idea of his being really the Mediator of the Cove-
nant, Divine Wisdom has recorded his sins and failings ; and it is worthy of ob-
servation that the Priesthood was assigned, not to him, but to bis brother Aaron ;
and that not he, but Joshua, had the honour of leading the Israelites into Ca-
naan.
J Exod. xx. 19.
248' Alv ESSAY ON THE
II. The ministry of the Gospel.
" Grace and truth" are here put for the Gospel of
Jesus Christ-
The Gospel is called Grace, in opposition to the .
Rigours of the Law.
[God manifested himself in it, not as on Mount Sinai with thunderings, but
in & gentle manner, under the veil of human flesh
In it he reveals his mercy and parental love
It is his //-ec Gift according to his own good Pleasure
It is accompanied with a Divine Efficacy to the souls of men
It operates on us, not enthusiastically, but in a rational manner ]
It is called Truth, in opposition to Falsehood.
[It is the accomplishment of what existed only in promises before
It is the substance of what was before exhibited in types*
It is the completion of what, under the law, was only begunr
The Author of this Gospel was Jesus Christ.
[He like Moses was an Interpreter between God and men
His Ministry also, like Moses' was accompanied with miracles
He moreover caused his Gospel to be written for a perpetual rule ]
As such He was honoured infinitely above Moses.
[ Moses was only the dispenser of the law, but Christ was the Author of
Grace and Truth
Moses did not procure the Covenant of which he was mediator ; whereas
the Covenant of Grace was given, not only through Christ, but on his
account
Moses could only report God's will to men : but Jesus Christ both report-
ed it to them, and became a Guarantee for their performance of it
Moses was not the source, nor even the dispenser of the Spirit, that accom-
panied the legal economy ; but Christ communicates the Spirit out of
his oicn fulness ?\
Moses wrought miracles by a foreign power ; but Jesus Christ by his
own
Moses was established over God's house as a servant ; but Jesus Christ as
a Son, (i. e. a Master and Heir) over his own house. ]
There are some texts, which must be discussed by
way of explication, although neither terms nor things
are difficult ; but because the matter is important, and
a meditation of it beautiful and full of edification. Pas-
* Heb. x. i. t Rom. viii. 1.5- John i. 16.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 249
sages of this kind must needs be proposed in all their
extent.
Take, for example, these words of St. Paul, 2 Cor. iv.
7. " We have this treasure in earthern vessels, that the
excellency of the power may be of God,,and not of us."*
* The terms and subject are easy, yet on account of the importance of the
matter, the passage must be extensively proposed.
I. The apostle's proposition, " We have this treasure in earthen vessels."
1. What is the treasure ? It is the gospel of Christ ; and so called,
On account of its worth and excellence.
Because of its abundance.
For its truth and reality.
Because it cannot be possessed without joy, jealousy, caution, &c.
Because in the context it is called light, glory, knowledge of God.
It is deposited in the hands of ministers.
It is a treasure in all who enjoy it ; but most in ministers ; especially as the
apostles possessed it. In all its extent, degrees, and purity.
It is a treasure in opposition to the false treasures of the earth.
It was once hid in God's decrees, bat is now displayed,
2. But this treasure is as in earthen vessels.
The passage probably alludes to Gideon's pitchers and lamps.
The word in angels was in precious vessels.
When God revealed it himself, it was without vessels.
When God declared himself by the sun, moon, &c. it was in vessels of grandeur*
The apostles are vessels; not authors of the gospel, but instruments.
They were earthen vessels, for the meanness of their conditions.
For the afflictions to which they were subject.
In regard to their own infirmities.
Yet the apostles wisely magnified their office for their treasure, while they
humbled, and as it were, annihilated themselves, calling themselves earthen vessels.
II. The reason assigned. " That the excellency of the power," &c.
1. The excellency of the power of the gospel. This consists,
In the happy success of the gospel in the conversion of men.
There is a. divine virtue in the doctrine of the gospel to humble, comfort, in-
struct, exhilerate, embolden, c.
Miracles accompanied the preaching of the apostles.
The energy of the Holy Ghost accompanied the preaching of the gospel.
2. The end that God proposed ; "That this power might appear to bt of him.
and not of men."
Men are inclined to ascribe all effects to second causes.
Thus the Heathen worshipped and served the creature more than God the
Creator.
The Lycaonians would fain have sacrificed to Paul and Barnabas*
32
250 AN ESSAY ON THE
Observe, farther, there are two sorts of explications.
The first is simple and plain, and needs only to be pro-
posed, and enlivened with clear and agreeable elucida-
tions.
The other &ind of explications must not only be stat-
ed and explained j but they must also be confirmed by
sufficient evidence. Sometimes a text speaks of a fact,
which can be confirmed only by proofs of fact; some-
times it is a matter of right, that must be established
by proofs of right 5 and sometimes it is a subject made
up of both fact and right, and consequently proofs of
right, as well as proofs of fact, must be adduced. We
will give an example of each.
For the first, take this text, Phil. ii. 6. " Jesus Christ,
being in the form of God, thought it not robbery to be
equal with God." Having explained what it is to be in
the form of God, and to count it not robbery to be equal
with God, namely, that it is to be God, essentially equal
with the Father, and co-eternal with him, &c. you must
needs make use of proofs of fact on this occasion ; for,
every one sees, it is a fact, which it is necessary improve,
The Jewsj who should have known better, were disposed to ascribe undue
power to Peter and John.
And John himself was surprised by this inclination, when- he fell prostrate be-
fore the angel.
We see the same spirit in the church of Rome.
God therefore, took this method, in order to stem this torrent, and to preclude
such abuses.
Besides, their meanness contributed to display the glory of the divine power.
Never did the power of Jesus Christ appear more, than when he subjugated
principalities and powers, and triumphed over them by the ministry of the cross.
These earthen vessels triumphed over the whole world with the sound of their
voice. Idols fell ; temples were demolished ; oracles were struck dumb ; the
people flocked in crowds to adore Jesus Christ. It is not enough to say, ' This
is theJingerqfGod;" we must rather exclaim, " This is the out-stretched am
of the Lord," CLAUDE.
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 251
not merely by the force of St. Paul's terms ; but also by
many other Scripture-proofs, which establish the divini-
ty of Jesus Christ.
But were you to preach from the 14th and 15th ver-
ses of the same chapter, " Do all things without murmur-
ings, and disputings ; that ye may be blameless and harm-
less, the sons of God without rebuke, in the midst of a
crooked and perverse nation, among whom ye shine as
lights in the world ; holding forth the word of life ;" it
is evident, that, after you have explained the vices,
which St. Paul forbids, and the virtues which he recom-
mends, the exhortation must be confirmed by reasons of
right, which show how unworthy and contrary to our
calling these vices are ; how much beauty and propriety
in the virtues enjoined ; and how strong our obligations
are to abstain from the. one, and to practise the other.
Our third example includes proofs of both kinds.
Take the seventh verse of the same chapter, " Jesus
Christ made himself of no reputation, and took upon him
the form of a servant, and was made in the likeness of
men :" or the 8th verse, " And being found in fashion as
a man, He humbled himself, and became obedient to the
death of the cross :" or the 9th verse, which speaks of
Christ's exaltation: Having explained the subject, you
must endeavour to confirm it, not only by proofs of fact,
but also by proofs of right; to which purpose you must
prove, 1. That the fact is, as St. Paul says. And 2,
That it ought to be, as it is, by reasons taken from the
wisdom of God, &c.
In like manner in discussing this text, " Whom the
Lord loveth he chasteneth, and scourgeth every son
whom he receiveth ;" after you have proposed in a few
words the apostle's doctrine, it ought to be confirmed, as
252 AN ESSAY ON THE
well by proofs of fact, which make it plain, that God
has always been pleased to observe this method, as by
proofs of right, which show that he does thus with a
great deal of wisdom. You Avill meet with an almost in-
finite number of texts of this nature.
There are sometimes texts of explication, in which
we are obliged to explain some one great and important
article consisting of many branches. As for example,
predestination; and efficacious, converting grace. In this
case you may either reduce the matter to a certain num-
ber of propositions, and discuss them one after another ;
or you may reduce them to a certain number of questions,
and discuss them in like manner : but you ought (choose
which way you will) to take particular care not to lay
down any proposition, or any question, which is not for-
mally contained in your text, or which does not follow
by a near and easy consequence ; for otherwise you
would discuss the matter in a common-place way.
For example. " It is God, who worketh effectually
in you both to will and to do of his own good pleasure."*
Above all, take care to arrange your propositions
well, when you take this method. Place the most gen-
eral first, and follow the order of your knowledge, so
* The thing to be explained is, the operation of divine grace ; and it is to
be explained in an immediate reference to the text. It might be said then,
that its operation is sovereign, rational, efficacious. It is sovereign, the result of
" God's good pleasure." since man has not so much as a disposition to do good,
till God has given it him ; and therefore can have nothing in himself that can in-
duce God to give it him. It is"rational ; for God influences us to action, not as
mere machines, but by illuminating our understanding, and inclining our " will."
It is efficacious; for if he work in us " to will," he will surely work in us " to
do ;" nor, however separate, in idea, volition and action may be, shall they ever
be separated in his people's experience.
This would include the principal observations of Mr. Claude, and render them
h more intelligible, and more easy to be remembered, SIMEON.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 253
that the first propositions may serve as steps {o the sec-
ond, the second to the third, and so of the rest.*
Sometimes, what you have to explain in a text will
consist of one or more simple terms 1 ; sometimes in certain
ways of speaking peculiar to Scripture, or at least of such
great importance, that they will deserve to be particu-
larly weighed and explained ; sometimes in particles
which they call syncategorematica ; and sometimes in
propositions. For example, simple terms, are, the divine
attributes, goodness, mercy, wisdom, &c. The virtues
of men, faith, hope, love, &c. Their vices and passions,
ambition, avarice, vengeance, wrath, &c. In short, sim-
ple terms are single words, and they are either proper,
or figurative. In order to explain figurative words, you
must give the meaning of the figure in a few words ; and
without stopping long upon the figure, pass to the thing
itself. And in general observe this rule, never insist long
on a simple term, unless it be absolutely necessary ; for to
aim at exhausting, (as it were) and saying all, tEat can
be said, on a single word, is imprudent in a preacher, es-
pecially when there are many important matters in the
text to be explained. Should any one (for example) in
explaining these words of Isaiah, " His name shall be
called Wonderful, Counsellor, the Mighty God, the Ev-
erlasting Father, the Prince of Peace," should a preach-
er, I say, insist on each term, and endeavour to exhaust
each word, he would handle the text in a common-place
way, and quite tire the hearer. You ought then, in dis-.-
cussing such passages, to select the most obvious articles,
and to enlarge principally on essential remarks.
* Arrange yo : ur propositions well. JSTothiug elucidates a subject inqre thac
a conformity to this rule. Cicero's three words- are -well known, aple, distincle*
254- AN ESSAY ON THE
Sometimes there are simple terms, of which you must
only take notice cursorily, and en passant, as it were, just
as they relate to the intention of the sacred author. For
example, in St. Paul's ordinary salutations, " Grace be to
you, and peace from God our Father, and from our Lord
Jesus Christ," it must not be imagined, that each of the
terms or phrases is to be- considered ex professo, either
grace, or peace, or God the Father, or Jesus Christ : but
the whole text is to be considered as a salutation, a ben-
ediction, an introduction to the epistle, and in these views
make necessary remarks on the terms. In one word,
take care to explain simple terms as much as possible in
relation to the present design of the sacred author, and
to the circumstances of the text ; for by these means you
will avoid common-places, and say proper and agreeable
things.
Sometimes you will meet with texts, the simple terms
of which must be discussed professedly ; and in order to
give a clear and full view of the subject, you must give
a clear and distinct idea of the terms.
When there are many simple terms in a text, you
must consider, whether it would not be more proper to
treat of them comparatively with each other, than to dis-
cuss them separately or each apart ; for sometimes it
would be very injudicious to discuss them separately,
and very agreeable to do it by comparison. Take for
example St. Luke's words, chap. ii. 8, 9, 10, 11. " And
there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the
fields, keeping watch over their flocks by night. And
lo ! the angel of the Lord came upon them, and the glo-
ry of the Lord shone round about them ; and they were
sore afraid. And the angel said unto them, Fear not ;
for behold I I bring you good tidings of great joy, which
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 255
shall be to all people. For unto you is born this day,
in the city of David, a Saviour, which is Christ the Lord."
In my opinion it would be very absurd to pretend to
treat separately these simple terms, in order to explain
what is a shepherd, and what is an angel, &c. But a
comparison of these terms with each other would afford
very beautiful and agreeable considerations, as will ap-
pear by the following analysis of the text. Let it then
be divided into two parts ; let the first be the appear-
ance of the angels to the shepherds with all the circum-
stances, which the history remarks : and the second, the
angel's message to them. The first is contained in the
eighth and ninth verses, and the second in the tenth and
eleventh.
As to the first, you may remark, that this meeting
of the angel and shepherds was not accidental or by
chance, but by the order of the providence of God, who
there placed the shepherds, and thither sent his angel.
You may amplify this by showing,
1. That God causes his grace to descend not only upon
the great and powerful of the world, but also on the most
simple and inconsiderable.
2. That it seems as if he took more pleasure in be-
stowing his favours on the most abject than in distribut-
ing them among persons of elevated rank. Matt. xi. 25,
1 Cor. i. 26. For while he sent the wise men of the
East to Herod, he sent an angel of heaven to the shep-
herds, and conducted them to the cradle of the Saviour
of the world.
3. That in this meeting of the angels and shepherds,
there is a character of the economy of Jesus Christ, where-
in the highest and most sublime things are joined with
the meanest and lowest. In his person the eternal word
is united to a creature, the divine nature to the hu-
256 AN ESSAY OJN THE
man, the Lord of Glory to mean flesh and blood. In
his baptism he is plunged in the water, and the Father
speaks to him from heaven; he is under the hand of
John the Baptist, and the Holy Ghost descends upon
him. In his temptation he hungers, yet miraculously
supports a fast of forty days : the devil tempts him and
angels obey him. On his cross, naked, crowned with
thorns and exposed to sorrows, yet at the same time
shaking the earth and eclipsing the sun. Here in like
manner angels are familiar with shepherds : angels to
mark his majesty, shepherds his humility; angels be-
cause he is Creator and master of all things ; shep-
herds because he made himself of no reputation, and
took upon himself the form of a servant.
After this you may make a proper reflection on the
time mentioned by St. Luke, who says, " The shepherds
were abiding in the field, keeping watch over their
flock by night." You may observe that while these
shepherds were busy in their calling, God sent his angel
to them ; and that, however simple and mean the em-
ployments of men may be, it is always very pleasing to
God when they discharge them with a good conscience.
Remark a second circumstance ; The glory of the
Lord shining around the shepherds. Here you may
observe,
That when angels borrow human forms to appear
to men, (as it is likely this angel did, when he appeared
to the shepherds) they have always appeared with some
ensigns of grandeur and majesty, to show that they were-
not men but angels, that is to say, beings of a superior
order. Thus the angels, who appeared at Christ's res-
urrection, were clothed with shining garments ; and so
were they, who appeared to the disciples after his as-
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 257
cension. Here the angel is accompanied with a great
light shining around the shepherds.
The third remarkable circumstance in the text, is
the greatfear with which the shepherds were seized.
1. This was an effect of their great surprise. When
grand objects suddenly present themselves to us, they
must needs fill us with astonishment and fear.
2. This fear also arose perhaps from emotions of con-
science. Man is by nature a sinner, and consequently an
object of the justice and vengeance of God ; when there-
fore, any thing extraordinary and divine appears to him,
he necessarily trembles. This may be exemplified by
Adam, who, having sinned, fled, and, the moment he
heard the voice of God, hid himself ; or by the Israel-
ites, who were terrified, when God appeared to them
upon the mountain : and hence that proverbial saying
among them, we shall die, for we have seen God.
But, as the thoughts of God are far different from
the thoughts of men, these poor shepherds did not long
remain in this state : but joy presently succeeded their
fear. Fear not, said the Angel, behold! I bring yon
glad tidings. Agreeable surprise ! far different from
what will befal sinners at the last day : for when they
cry, Peace', peace, then sudden destruction shall come upon
them : but here, when the shepherds trembled, when
they were seized with a dreadful horror, which made
them apprehend all danger, forth issues the greatest of
all joys, the most affecting of all consolations, the news
of the birth of the Saviour of the world.
Proceed now to the second part of the text ; the.
Angel's discourse to the shepherds. And observe,
1. The Angel says to them, Fear not. He uses this
33
258 AN ESSAY ON THE
preface to gain their attention, which fear (no douht)
had almost entirely dissipated.
After this preface the Angel acquits himself of his
commission, and announces to the shepherds the great
and mysterious news of the Redeemer's birth. " Be-
hold !" says he, "I bring you glad tidings of great joy,
which shall be to all people ; for unto you is born this
day in the city of David, a Saviour, which is Christ the
Lord." Remark in the front of his message the word.
behold, which is generally used in scripture to denote
the greatness and importance of the subject in question,
and to gain attention. The prophets had often used it.
Isaiah on a like account had said, Behold ! a virgin
shall conceive. Zechariah had cried, Daughter of Zion,
Behold ! thy king cometh, just, and having salvation.
Malachi had said, Behold I the Lord, whom ye seek,
shall suddenly come to his temple. It is easy to remark,
that the angel could never more properly use this word
than on this occasion. Do you doubt of it ? Hear his mes-
sage. / bring you, says he to them, glad tidings of great
joy-
In order to examine the words properly, you must
begin with the Angel's description of the person, of whom
he speaks ; a Saviour, Christ the Lord. Then pass to
what he says about him ; he is born unto you, says he.
He marks the time ; this day. He describes the place ;
in the city of David. And, in fine, he specifies the na-
ture of this important news ; a great joy, which shall be to
all people.
Having considered his titles in general, and each
apart, you may proceed to consider them in a compara-
tive view. This comparison may be of the words with
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 259
each other, or with the other parts of the text, or with the
words which jfo//oM7 the text.
; In the first view, you may say, that the Angel in-
tended primarily to give the shepherds an idea of the
benefits, which they might expect of the Messiah, and
for this reason began with the title Saviour, in or-
der to affect them with their own interest, and indeed
with the greatest of all interests. Afterwards, to con-
firm their hope upon that point, he rises to the source
of this salvation, the mercy of God, who bestowed it on
them ; therefore he says, the Saviour is Christ, that is,
the promised Messiah. In fine, in order to convince
them with what profound respect men ought to receive
him, he adds, that he is sovereign Lord. In the title
Saviour, he shows the end of Christ's coming into the
world. In that of Christ, the right, which he had to
undertake so great a work, which was the Father's
mission, who for that purpose had anointed him. And
in that of Lord, he marks the sovereign power, with
which he should happily execute the office, that the
Father had committed to him.
In comparing these three titles with the other parts
of the text, you may show, that the Angel calls him a Sa-
viour, to justify that great joy, which, says he, / bring you.
That he calls him Christ, the Son of God, the promised
Messiah, with relation to his birth in the city of David.
And that he calls him Lord, to render, in some sort, a
reason for an angel's coming with the glad tidings ; as if
he had said, / bring you the glad tidings, because he is
Lord of all, both yours and ours.
In comparing the words with whatjfblloivs, you may
observe, that the Angel calls him a Saviour, Christ, the
Lord, in order to guard the shepherds against their be*
260 AN ESSAY ON THE
ing offended at what he was about to tell them, that
they should find him a babe wrapped in swaddling clothes,
lying in a manger. As if he had said, let not these sad
appearances offend you ; he whom you will find an
infant, in swaddling clothes, and in a manger, is the Re-
deemer of the world, the true anointed of God, the Lord
of the whole universe.
This Saviour, this Christ, this Lord, says the Angel,
is born unto you.
Here you may commence a lively exhortation to
joy, the motives to which may be taken from the terms
of the text; that there is a Saviour ; that he is Christ ;
that he is the Lord ; that after being so long expected,
at length he came; that he was born for us ; that we
have an interest in him above angels ; that he has tes-
tified his love to us by submitting to sinless infirmities;
you may compare his first with his last Advent, and dis-
pose your auditors to feel a still greater joy in expecta-
tion of his coming to raise them from the dead, and put-
ting the last hand to the work of our redemption ; then
will he appear a .Saviour indeed, for he will complete
the salvation of the faithful. Then will he appear a
Christ indeed, for he will finish the design of his unction,
and mill make us kings and priests to God his Father.
Then will he appear Lord indeed, for all things shall
be subjected to him, he will triumph over our enemies,
he will swallow up death in victory, and he will elevate
us tp the possession of eternal glory.*
Having spoken of simple terms, I proceed to add
something concerning expressions peculiar to scripture.
* This discourse was very long and tedious. Ml that could elucidate the
treating of texts by comparison is retained ; but that, which tended only to dis-
tract the mind, is expunged,
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 261
These deserve a particular explication, and should be
discussed and urged with great diligence, as well, because
they are peculiar modes of speaking, as because they
are rich with meaning. In this class I put such forms
of , speaking as these. " To be in Christ Jesus. To
come to Jesus Christ. To come after Jesus Christ. To
live in the flesh. To live after the flesh. From faith
to faith. From glory to glory. To walk after the
flesh. To walk after the spirit. The old man. The
new man. Jesus Christ lives in you. To live to Jesus
Christ. To live to ourselves. To die to the world.
To die to ourselves. To be crucified to the world.
The world to be crucified to us. Jesus Christ made sin for
us, we made the righteousness of God in him. Christ
put to death in the flesh, quickened by the Spirit. Die
unto sin. Live unto righteousness. Quench the Spirit.
Grieve the Spirit. Resist the Holy Ghost. Sin against the
the Holy Ghost." And I know not how many more such
expressions, which are found almost no where but in scrip-
ture. Whenever you meet with such forms of speech as
these, you must not pass them over lightly, but you must
fully explain them, entering well into the spirit and mean-
ing of them. It would be very convenient for a young
man to procure for this purpose an exact collection, and
endeavour to inform himself of the sense of each.
This subject would require, as it well deserves, a par-
ticular treatise ; however, I will briefly give an exam-
ple of the manner, in which expressions of this kind
should be discussed. Let us take these words. Mark
viii. 34. " Whosoever will come after me. let him deny
himself, and take up his cross and follow me." Methinks
it would not be improper to divide the sermon into two
parts. In the first we would treat of the expression-,
262 AN ESSAY ON THE
which Jesus uses, Come after me deny himself -take up
his cross and follow me. And in the second, we would
examine the entire sense of our Saviour's whole proposition.
To begin then with the explication of these expres-
sions. To come after Jesus Christ signifies no other thing
than to be his disciples, to take him for the rule and
model of our conduct, in a word, to profess an acknowl-
edgment of him as our head and master, our supreme
prophet and teacher, our pattern and exemplar.
Deny himself is an expression so singular, that it seems
to shock reason and nature, and to suppose a thing diffi-
cult, yea, absolutely impossible, or at least extremely
criminal. Yet, it is certain, nothing can be more holy,
nothing more necessary, nothing more just, than this self-
renunciation, which Jesus Christ here ordains. He does
not mean, that we should divide ourselves from our-
selves, or that we should hate ourselves ; but he intends,
1. In general, that we should renounce all that is in
us excessive., vicious and irregular ; this he calls self, be-
cause corruption is become, as it were, natural to us, we
being conceived in sin, and shapen in iniquity.
2. He commands us particularly to renounce that vi-
olent, immoderate, and excessive love, which man in a
state of depravity has for himself, making self-love his
chief and only principle of action, in one word, being a
god to himself.
o
3. He enjoins the renunciation of that false and per-
verse pretence, which all sinners have, that they are their
own masters, that no one has a right over them, that to
themselves only belongs the disposition of words, actions,
and thoughts. The Saviour means, that, renouncing this
unjust and foolish pretence, we should submit ourselves
to the government and direction of God, confiding in the
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 263
conduct of his wisdom, and receiving him to reign in our
hearts by his word and Spirit.
Take up his cross, is ah expression consecrated by
Jesus Christ to a sacred purpose, though it does not be-
long only to scripture style. Here two things are in-
tended by it. The mystical cross of conversion, and the
cross of afflictions.
1. Conversion is called in scripture a cross ; because
sin and carnal lusts are made to die within our hearts ;
this the scripture calls crucifying the old man. -
' 2. Afflictions are justly called crosses, not only be-
cause nature suffers, but also because by these means we
become the horror and reproach of the world.
Finally, to follow Jesus Christ, is, 1. To become his
disciple, to believe his doctrine, to approve his maxims, to
be persuaded of the truth of his mysteries and holiness
of his laws.
2. To follow is to imitate him, to propose him as our
exemplar and pattern iri the whole conduct of our lives,
to walk in the same way as he walked, in order to ob-
tain communion with him in glory.
3. To profess openly our subjection to him, as our
Master and Lord, to obey his orders, &c. In a word,
to follow is the same as to come after him, which we just
now explained.
This is the first part. The second consists in con-
sidering the entire sense of Jesus Christ's whole proposi-
tion. He means, then, that, if we would be really of
the number of his disciples and followers, we must sub-
mit to two things, sanctification and affliction.
1. Sanctification. Here enter into the subject, and
show how impossible it is to belong to Jesus Christ with-
eut forsaking sin, and entirely changing the life. " The
264 AN ESSAY ON THE
grace of Godj that bringeth salvation, hath appeared to
all men; teaching us, that denying ungodliness, and
worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and
godly, in this present world, looking for that blessed
hope, and the glorious appearing of the great God, and
our Saviour Jesus Christ."
These are St. Paul's words to Titus, and three
things may be remarked in them, grace, holiness, and
glory. And you may easily observe, that grace, conducts
to glory only by means of holiness : take away holiness,
and grace and glory can never be joined together. The
apostle therefore does -not say, ' The grace of God hath
appeared to all men, teaching us to look for the glorious
appearing of Jesus Christ ;' but, he says, " The grace of
God hath appeared to all men, teaching us to deny un-
godliness and worldly lusts, to live soberly, righteously,
and godly, in this present world ;" and so to be looking
for that blessed hope, the glorious appearing of the great
God and our Saviour Jesus Christ. Grace indeed ends
in glory ; but.it can only do so by the intervention of
holiness.
You may also allege, to the same purpose, the end
of Jesus Christ's coming into the world, which was not
only to destroy sin, as it subjected us to eternal punish-
ment, but as sin. You may finally show, how much it
is for the glory of the Father, and of Jesus Christ, and
for the reality and plenitude of salvation, that the disci-
ples of Jesus should be sanctified.
2. Affliction. Two things here must be discussed.
1. The truth of the fact, that true believers are ex-
posed to afflictions in this world. 2. The reasons why
the divine wisdom subjects believers to these trials.
1. The truth of the fact results 1. from the examples
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 265
of all the great servants of God who have appeared in
the world to this day : as Noah, Abraham, Lot, Moses,
St. Paul, and all the other apostles of Jesus Christ. 2.
From the whole history of the church, which was always
nourished and increased in afflictions* This may be il-
lustrated by the burning bush, which appeared to Mo-
ses ; or by the ship$ into which Jesus and his apostles
went, tossed with waves, and exposed to the violence of
winds and storms.
2. The reasons for this dispensation of divine provi-
dence may be taken from a common-place of afflictions,
as, by means of afflictions God restrains our impetuous
passions, exercises our virtues, detaches us from the world,
elevates us to the hope of a better life, and displays the glo-
ry of that admirable providence, which governs us. Af-
flictions also are particular honours* which God confers
on us, by them enabling us to walk in the steps of Jesus
Christ, and conforming us by them to our divine leader.
For these reasons, and many more of the same kind, we
may fairly conclude, thai with profound wisdom Jesus
Christ has called us to affliction, and joined the cross to
the profession of true Christianity.*
We have before observed, that, beside simple terms,
and singular expressions peculiar to scripture, there are
also sometimes in texts, particles, that are called syncate-
gorematica, which serve either for the augmentation or
limitation of the meaning of the proposition. As the word
so in John iii. 16. " God so loved the word." The word
now in the viii. of Romans. "There is therefore now no
condemnation to them, which are in Christ Jesus ;"
and in many more passages of the same kind.
* This is somewhat abridged, for the same reason as the Foregoing,
34
266 AN ESSAY ON THE
Whenever you meet with these terms, carefully ex-
amine them ; for sometimes the greatest part, and very
often the whole of the explication, depends upon them,
as we have already remarked on that passage just now
mentioned, " God so loved the world :" for the chief
article, in the doctrine of the love of God, is its great-
ness, expressed by the word so. It is the same with
that other term now, " there is therefore now no con-
demnation to them, which are in Christ Jesus J" for the
word now shows, that it is a conclusion drawn from the
doctrine of justification, which the apostle had taught in
the preceding chapters, and it is as if he had said, From
the principles, which I have established, it follows, that
there is NOW no condemnation, &c. Having then ex-
plained, 1. What it is to be in Christ Jesus. 2. What it
is to be " no more subject to condemnation," chiefly in-
sist, in the third place, on the word now ; and show, that
it is a doctrine, which necessarily follows from what St.
Paul had established touching justification in the fore-
going chapters ; so that this term makes a real part of
the explication, and indeed the most important part.
Sometimes these terms in question are not of conse-
quence enough to be much dwelt on : but may be more
properly passed with a slight remark. The word Be-
hold, with which many propositions in scripture begin,
must be treated so ; you must not make one part of this,
nor insist on it too long. The same may be said of that
familiar expression of Jesus Christ, Verily, Verily, which
is an asseveration, or, if you will, an oath : but neither
on this must you insist much. So again, Amen, or so be
it, which closes some texts. Woe be to you, which Jesus
Christ often repeats in the gospel, with many more of
the same kind. I know no certain rule to distinguish
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 267
when they are important : but it must be left to the
preacher's taste ; and a little attention will make the
necessary discernment very easy.
When the matter to be explained in a text consists
of a proposition, you must, 1. Give the sense clearly and
neatly, taking care to develope it of all sorts of ambigu-
ity.
2. If it be requisite, show how important in religion
it is to be acquainted with the truth in hand ; and for
this purpose open its connexion with other important
truths ; and its dependence on them ; the inconveniences,
that arise from negligence ; the advantageous succours,
which piety derives thence, with other things of the
same nature.
3. Having placed it in a clear light, and shown its
importance, if it require confirmation, confirm it. In all
cases endeavour to illustrate either by reasons, or exam*
pies, or comparisons, of the subjects with each other, or
by remarking their relation to each other, or by show-
ing their conformities, or differences, all with a view to il-
lustrate the matter that you are discussing. You may
also illustrate a proposition by its consequences, by show-
ing how many important inferences are included in it,
and flow from it.
In 'fine, you may illustrate by the person, who propos-
es the subject ; by the state, in which he was, when he
proposed it ; by the persons, to whom it is proposed ; by
circumstances of time, and place, &c. All these may give
great openings ; but they must be judiciously and dis-
creetly used; for to attempt to make an assemblage of
all these" in the discussion of one proposition, would be
trifling, endless, and pedantic.
Sometimes one single proposition includes many truths.
268 AN ESSAY ON THE
which it will be necessary to distinguish : but, in doing
this, take care that each truth, on which you intend to
insist, be of some importance in religion, not too common,
nor too much known. This your own good sense must
discern.
Sometimes one proposition must be discussed in the
different views, in which it may be taken j and in this
case vou must remark those different relations.
j
Sometimes the doctrine contained in the proposition
has different degrees, which it will also be necessary to
remark.
Sometimes the proposition is general, and this gener-
ality seems to make it of little importance. In- this case
you must examine, whether some of its parts be not more
considerable ; if they be, you will be .obliged to discuss
these parts by a particular application.
First. To give the sense of a proposition neat and
clear, and afterwards to confirm and illustrate it, let us
take Eph. i. 18. " The eyes of your understanding be-^
ing enlightened, that ye may know what is the hope of
his calling, and what the riches of the glory of his in-
heritance in the saints."
This text must be divided into two parts. The first
is the apostle's prater, ."May God enlighten the eyes of
your understanding !" the second is the end of this illu-
mination, " that ye may know what is the hope of his
calling, and what the riches of the glory qf his inheri-
tance in the saints."
1. The apostle's wish or prayer contains a proposi-
tion, which is, that *? it is God who enlightens the eyes
of our understanding." To give clearly the sense, you
must first observe in a few words, that scripture frequent-
ly borrows the names and images of the faculties of the
, COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 269
body to represent those of the soul ; therefore it gives
us feet to walk in the way of righteousness, hands to work
out our salvation, knees to bow at the name of Jesus,
ears to hear the sacred truths of the gospel, a mouth to
eat the flesh and drink the blood of Jesus Christ, and
eyes to see the mysteries of his kingdom. All this is
founded not only on the natural conformity, or resem-
blance, which there is between the operations of the
soul and the organs of the body, but also on the scrip-
ture-manner of calling the whole of our regeneration and
conversion a new man. Here, then, eyes of the under"
standing is an expression agreeable to the ordinary style
of scripture, and signifies simply our understanding, thg
faculty by which we know and judge objects.
2. But, beside this, you must remark, that our eyes
have two very different uses , one consists only in viewing
objects indifferently, for no other purpose than our diver-
sion ; as when in a rural walk we look at the starry heav-
ens, or admire extensive plains, and flowing rivers : this
may be called a simple view of contemplation : the oth-
er goes farther, and consists not barely in seeing objects,
but in looking at them so as to conduct and regulate our
actions : so a traveller sees roads in his journey ; so a
man sees his friend to open his own heart, and ask his
friend's advice ; so a prisoner sees his deliverer to ask
his freedom : this may be called a view of action or di-
rection. Thus it is with the understanding ; it has two
functions, one a simple knowledge of objects, as of phys-
ical or metaphysical truths, called in the schools, specu-
lative knowledge : the other a knowledge of objects in
order to act by them, and to use them for a rule, and a
guide, as when we know the nature of virtue, and the
precepts of morality, the rules of art, and the maxims of
270 AN ESSAY ON THE
jurisprudence; this is what the schools call practical
knowledge* Now, here the understanding is spoken of,
not in the former, but latter sense ; for the mysteries of
the Christian religion are not mysteries of simple con-
templation, the scripture does not propose them for our
diversion, nor to gratify our curiosity ; but they are mys-
teries of practice, which we ought to know, in order to
act towards them, by embracing them with all the pow-
ers of our hearts, by receiving their impression and yield-
ing to their energy ; in one word, by making them a rule
of our conduct. The apostle's proposition then means,
That it is God, who by the interior light of his spirit
opens the eyes of our understandings to receive, as we
ought, the truths of his word, thereby enabling us to
judge of them, to love and follow them, and to make
them the rules of our conduct
The proposition, thus explained, must be proved.
This may be done directly, or indirectly ; indirectly by
producing divers passages of scripture, which represent
the greatness of natural depravity, and the inability of
man to convert himself. Such passages are very nume-
rous, as where the heart is called an " an heart of stone."
Where the prophet asks, " Can the Ethiopian change
his skin, or the leopard his spots ? then may ye also do
good, that are accustomed to do evil." A direct confir-
mation consists of passages, in which our conversion is
formally ascribed to God, and to the efficacy of his spirit,
which are also very numerous.
While you are confirming this proposition by scrip-
ture, you may mix an illustration of it by reasoning, by
showing that our attachments to the world are so many
and so strong, that supernatural grace is absolutely nec-
essary to dissolve them ; that the obscuri ties of our minds
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 271
arising either from our prejudices, or passions, or old
habits, or the colours, under which the Gospel first pre-
sents itself to us, are such as render it impossible for us
to judge rightly. This may be particularly inserted in
the indirect way,
In the direct way you may also mix reasoning, by
showing, that the divine wisdom determines, our regen-
eration should be all heavenly ; that neither flesh, nor
blood, nor natural principles contribute any thing ; that
the new man, being the pure work of the Holy Spirit,
renders us more conformable to Jesus Christ ; for, ac-
cording to St. Paul, " God has predestinated us to be
conformed to the image of his Son." When Jesus Christ
came into the world, he came not in the ordinary, natu-
ral way ; but by a law above all laws in the world. He
was made of a virgin, formed by the power of the Holy
Ghost. God declares, that Christians " are born, not of
blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of
man, but of himself;" and on this account they are em-
phatically styled the children of God, and the brethren
of Christ*
In confirming this proposition you may also illustrate
it by some examples, as by that of the converted thief;
that of St. Paul ; that of the Jews, converted on the day
of Pentecost, at the preaching of St. Peter, &c. In short,
by any examples, in which the power of grace remark-
ably shone in conversion.
The subject may be illustrated by comparing conver-
sion with the almighty work of God in creating the uni-
verse ; and you may remark in a few words their con-
formities and differences.
You may illustrate by its consequences, showing the
greatness and importance of the change wrought in men,
when God opens the eyes of their understandings,
272 . AN ESSAY ON THE
The illustration may flow from inevidence, by show-
ing, that Jesus Christ alone has taught men this truth,
that conversion is of God. All false religions attribute
this work to man himself: philosophy is not acquainted
with this grace from on high.
Finally, you may illustrate the subject by the person
who proposes it, who is St. Paul. He had felt all its ef-
ficacy, fathomed, as it were, all its depth, and conse-
quently could well speak of it. Or by the persons to
whom it was addressed, the Ephesians, who had been
reclaimed from the greatest superstition that was among
the pagans, that is to say, the worship of Diana.
The manner, in which St. Paul proposes this truth,
must not be forgotten ; it is in the form of a wish or
prayer. "May God give you an illumination of the eyes
of your understanding !" Which shows the necessity
and importance of grace, without which all the other
mercies of God would be rather hurtful than profitable.
You may also remark the circumstances of time and
place; for St. Paul wrote this epistle, when he was in
prison at Rome, when he was loaded with chains, and
when the gospel was every where persecuted. Under
such forbidding circumstances, the Holy Ghost must
needs display a mighty power in conversion.*
Secondly, to give an example of propositions, includ-
ing divers truths, which must be distinguished from each
other. We cannot choose a more proper text than the
remaining part of the passage, which was just now ex-
plained. " That you may know," says St. Paul, " what
is the hope of his calling, and what the riches of the
glory of his inheritance in the saints." The apostle's
* Out of these various methods of illustration Mr. Claude would have the
preacher choos* the most proper, and not attempt to crowd all into one sermon.
COMPOSITION 6fr A SE&MON. 273
proposition is$ That, by the illumination of grace,- we
understand the innumerable blessings, to the enjoyment
of which God calls us by his gospel. Now this propo-
sition includes many truths, which it will be necessary .to'
distinguish**
CHAP. VL
TEXTS TO BE DISCUSSED BY WAY OP OBSERVATION.
SOME texts require a discussion by way of considera^
tion, or observation. The following hirsts may serve for
a general direction.
1. When texts are clear of themselves,- and the mat-
ter well known to the hearers^ it would be trifling to amuse
the people with explication* Such texts must be taken
* 1. The gospel is a divine vocation ; " Awake thou that sleepest, &c."
The church is" not a tumultuous assembly, &c. but a society which haa God
for its author
2. A vocation in which God proposes something to our hope.
Not a vocation of mere authority, much less of seduction to sin -
But like that to Abraham, or to Lazarus
3. This call proposes to our hopes an Inheritance.
Not a recompense proportioned to our merit
But a good bestowed in virtue of adopting grace
4. This inheritance is a heavenly one ; in holy^ or Heavenly places'
The apostle intends, not only the nature of the divine blessings, but also the.
place of possessing them
5. These are blessings of infinite abundance, of inexpressible value
" Riches of the glory ;" a way of speaking .proper to the Hebrews, and
often used , '
6. The apostle would have us know the admirable greatness of this hope
All our deviations, and wrong attachments, arise from our ignorance of this
glory
7. The knowledge we have of this matter comes from divine Illumination.
CLAUDE.
274 AN ESSAY ON THE
as they are, that is, clear, plain, and evident, and only
observations should be made on them.
2. Most historical texts must be discussed in this way ;
for, in a way of explication, there would be very little to
say. For example, what is there to explain in this pas-
sage ? " Then Jesus, six days before the passover, came
to Bethany, where Lazarus was, which had been dead,
whom he raised from the dead, There they made him
a supper, and Martha served : but Lazarus was one of
them, that sat at table with him." John xii. Would it
not be a loss of time and labour to attempt to explain these
words ; and are they not clearer than any comments can
make them? the way of observation, then, must be taken.
3. There are some texts, which require both explica-
tion and observation, as when some parts may need ex-
plaining. For example, Acts i. 10. " And while they
looked stedfastly toward heaven, as he went up, behold !
two men stood by them in white apparel." Here it will
be necessary to explain in a few words the cause of their
44 looking stedfastly toward heaven ;" for by lifting their
eyes after their divine Master, they expressed the inward
emotions of their minds. It will be needful also to ex-
plain this other expression, " as he went up," and to ob-
serve, that it must be taken in its plain, popular sense ;
and that it signifies not merely the removal of his visible
presence, while he remained invisibly upon earth ; but
the absolute absence of his humanity. This is the natu-
ral sense of the words, and the observation is necessary
to guard us against that sense, which the church of Rome
imposes on them for the sake of transubstantiation. You
may also briefly explain this other expression, " behold !
two men," and show that they were Angels in human
shapes. Here you may discuss the question of angelical
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON.
appearances under human forms. Notwithstanding these
brief explications, this is a text, that must be discussed
by way of observation,
Observe, in general, when explication and observa-
tion meet in one text, you must always explain the part,
that needs explaining, before you make any observations ;
for observations must not be made, till you have estab-
lished the sense plainly and clearly.
4. Sometimes an observation may be made by way
of explication, as when you would infer something impor-
tant from the meaning of an original term in the text.
For example ; Acts ii. 1. "And when the day of Pen-
tecost was fully come, they were all with one accord in
one place."
It will be proper here to explain and enforce the
Greek word o/xo0uju,5ov, which is translated with one ac-
cord, for it signifies, that they had the same hope, the
same opinions, the same judgment ; and thus their una-
nimity is distinguished from an exterior, and negative
agreement, which consists in a mere profession of hav-
ing no different sentiments, and in not falling out ; but
this may proceed from negligence, ignorance, or fear of
a tyrannical authority. The uniformity of which the
church of Rome boasts, is of this kind ; for if they have
no disputes and quarrels among them on religious mat-
ters, (which however, is not granted,) it is owing to the
stupidity and ignorance, in which the people are kept, or
to that indifference and negligence, which the greatest
part of that community discover towards religion, con-
cerning which they seldom trouble themselves ; or to
the fear of that tyrannical domination of their prelates,
with which the constitution of their church arms them.
Now, consider such an uniformity how you will, it will
276 AN ESSAY ON THE
appear a false peace. If ignorance or negligence pro-
duce it, it resembles the quiet of dead carcases in a bu-
rying-ground, or the profound silence of night, when all
are asleep ; and, if it be owing to fear, it is the stillness
of a galley-slave under the strokes of his officer, a mere
shadow of acquiescence produced by timidity, and un-
worthy of the name of unanimity. The disciples of Jesus
Christ were not uniform in this sense : but their una-
nimity was inward, and positive, they & were of one
heart, -and one soul." This explication, you perceive, is
itself a very just observation, and there are very many
passages of scripture, which may be treated of in the
same manner.
5. Observations, for the most part, ought to be THE-
OLOGICAL, that is to say, they should belong to a system
of religion. Sometimes, indeed we may make use of
observations historical, philosophical, and critical ; but
these should be used sparingly, arid seldom ; on necessa-
ry occasions, and when they cannot well be avoided ; and
even then they ought to be .pertinent, and not common,
that they may be heard with satisfaction. Make it a law
to be generally very brief on observations of these kinds,
and to inform your audience, that you only make them
en passant.
There are, I allow, some cases, in which observations
remote from theology are necessary to the elucidating of
a text. When these happen, make your observations
professedly, and explain and prove them. But, I repeat
it again, in general, observations should be purely theor
logical ; either speculative, which regard the mysteries
of Christianity, or practical, which regard morality; for
the pulpit was erected to instruct the minds of men in.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 277
religious subjects, and not to gratify curiosity ; to inflame
the heart, and not to find play for imagination.
6. Observations should not be proposed in scholastic
style, nor in common-place guise. They should be sea-
soned with a sweet urbanity, accommodated to the ca-
pacities of the people, and adapted to the manners of
good men.* One of the best expedients for this purpose
is a reduction of obscure matters to a natural, popular,
modern air. You can never attain this ability, unless you
acquire a habit of conceiving clearly of subjects yourself,
and of expressing them in a free, familiar, easy manner,
remote from every thing forced, and far-fetched. All
long trains of arguments, all embarrassments of divisions
and subdivisions, all metaphysical investigations, which
are mostly impertinent, and, like the fields, the cities, and
tl^e houses, which we imagine in the clouds, the mere
creatures of fancy, all these should be avoided.
7. Care, however must be taken to avoid the oppo-
site extreme, which consists in making only poor, dry,
spiritless observations, frequently said under pretence of
avoiding school-divinity, and of speaking only popular
things. Endeavour to think clearly, and try also to think
nobly. Let your observations be replete with beauty,
as well as propriety, the fruits of a fine fancy under the
* Urbanity is opposed to rusticity, and that of which our author speaks, re-
gards both the subject itself, and th.e language, in which it is expressed. In short,
if urbanity be not in the preacher, it will never be in his sermons.
Ministers, who aim at this excellence, should remember, that there is such a
thing as being too familiar. As to an easy manner also, there are two extremes.
The formal stiffness of a pedant, and the carelessness of a man who does not re-
spect his company, are both at a distance from Mr. CLAUD B'S . ease. The ease
of the manner pf a Christian preacher, in the pulpit, is not the ease of a man, when
?one, but of a well-bred man in company.
A subject is far-fetched, when, although it may have some connexion with the
text, yet this connexion lies at a great distance, and obliges the preacher to go a,
Jong, long way to come at it. ROBINSOH-.
278 AN ESSAY ON THE
direction of a sober judgment. If you be inattentive to
this article, you will pass for a contemptible declaimer,
of mean and shallow capacity, exhausting yourself and
not edifying your hearers ; a very ridiculous character !
To open more particularly some sources of observa-
tions, remark every thing, that may help you to think,
and facilitate invention ;
I.
RISE PROM SPECIES TO GENUS.*
Psal. 1. 14. " Sacrifice to God thanksgiving, and
pay thy vows unto the most High." In discussing this
text, I would observe first the terms, sacrifice thanksgiv-
ing, and would elucidate them by going from the species
to the genus. The dignity of sacrifice in general would
lead me to observe ; that it is the immediate commerce
of a creature with his God, an action, in which it is dif-
ficult to judge whether earth ascend to heaven, or
heaven descend to earth ; that in almost all the other
acts of religion the creature receives of his Creator : but
in this the Creator receives of his creature ; that the
Lord of the universe, who needs nothing, and who eter-
nally lives in a rich abundance, hath such a condescen-
sion as to be willing to receive offering at our hands ;
that, of all dignities, that of the priesthood was the
highest, for which reason the ancient priests dwelt in
the tabernacle, or temple of God ; that when God di-
vided Canaan among the children of Israel, each tribe
had its portion except that of Levi, to which God as-
signed nothing. Why ? because he loved them less ?
* This is a topic peculiarly proper in an exordium.
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 279
No, but because he gave them the priesthood, and be-
cause he, who had the priesthood, the altar, and the
censer, had God for his portion, and consequently could
have no need of temporal things. This is, you see, to
rise from species to genus ; for the text does not speak
of sacrifice in general, but of the sacrifice of praise in
particular; yet, when these general considerations are
pertinent, they cannot fail of being well received^
II.
DESCEND FROM GENUS TO SPECIES,
An example may be taken from Psal. cxxiii. 2. " Be-
hold ! as the eyes of servants look unto the hand of their
masters, so our eyes wait upon the Lord our God."
Here you may aptly observe in masters with regard to
servants, and in God with regard to us$ three senses of
the phrase. There is a hand of beneficence, a hand ef
protection or deliverence, and a hand of correction. A
servant expects favours from the hand of his master, not
from that of a stranger. He looks to him for protec-
tion and deliverence in threatening dangers, and refuses
all help, except that of his master. He expects cor-
rection from him, when he commits a fault, and, when
corrected, humbles himself under his master's frown, hi
order to disarm him by tears of repentance. The ap-
plication of these to the servants of God is easy. The
word succour is general, and may very well be considered
by descending from the genus to the species, and by ob-
serving the different occasions, which we have for divine
assistance, and, consequently, the different assistances
and succours, which God affords us ; as the help of his
word to remove our ignorance., doubts, or errors ; the
280 AN ESSAY ON THE
help of his providence to deliver us out of afflictions ;
help of his grace and spirit to guard us from the temp*
tations of the world, and to aid us against the weaknesses
of nature ; the help of divine consolations to sweeten the
bitterness of our exercises under distressing circumstan^
ces, and to give us courage to bear afflictions ; the help
of his mercy to pardon our sins, and to restore to our
consciences that tranquility, which they have lost by of-
fending God. You will meet with a great number of
texts which may be discussed in this manner ; but great
care must be taken not to strain the subject ; for that
would make you look like a school-boy. The best way is to
make only one general observation, and then to apply it
to several particular subjects, collecting all at last into
one general point of view.
III.
REMARK THE DIVERS CHARACTERS OF A VICE, WHICH IS FOR-
BIDDEN, OR OF A VIRTUE, WHICH IS COMMANDED.*
You might easily take the characters of vices from
this pattern of characterising virtues ; however^ I will
* For example, 2 Thess. iii. 5. " The Lord direct your hearts into the love
of God, and into the patient waiting for Christ.?' Begin with the characters of
true love to God. The seat of it is the heart ; it possesses the whole heart ; and
though it is not alone, it holds the chief place ; its emotions and acts are infinite^
without measure or subordination, without bounds or partition ; but sets bounds
to every emotion towards other objects ; is accompanied with humility and fear ;
principally consists in obedience ; is inflamed under the rod of correction ; and
is not superstitious. It is tranquil and peaceable ; yet always active ; and finally,
one of the greatest evidences of love to God is, spontaneous obedience, not
waiting for chastisements to awake us, after we have fallen into sin. So much,
for the characters of love.
Then subjoin the emotions included in the words, " patient waiting." Ou
which, remark, That the coming of Jesus Christ being the subject in question,
the expectation of a believer is a true and real hope, accompanied with an holy
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 281
add an example on avarice, taking for a text Heb. xiii. 5.
" Let your conversation be without covetousness, and
be content with such things as ye hare."
1. Avarice is a disposition so gross, that it obscures the
understanding and reason of a man, even so far as to
make him think of profit, where there is nothing but
loss, and imagine that to be economy, which is nothing
but ruin. Is it not in this manner, that a covetous man,
instead of preventing maladies by an honest and frugal
expense, draws them upon himself by a sordid and nig-
gardly way of living ; and by this means brings himself
under an unavoidable necessity of consuming one part of
his substance to recover a health, which, by an exces-
sive parsimony, he has lost ? There are even some, who
bring inevitable death upon themselves, rather than
spend any thing to procure necessary relief, and are im-
pertinent enough to imagine that riches had better be
without a possessor, than a possessor without riches ; as
if man were made for money, and not money for man.
But, 2dly, this would be but little^ if avarice affected
only the avaricious themselves ; it goes much farther,
it renders a man useless to society. It subverts the idea
of our living to assist one another ; for a covetous man
is useless to the whole world. He resembles that earth,
of which St. Paul speaks, which " drinketh in the rain,
that comes often upon it, and beareth only thorns and
briars." He is an unfruitful tree ; a gulf, which draws
in waters from all parts ; but from which no stream
runs : or, if you will, an avaricious man is like death,
and ardent desire, as being an expectation of the greatest blessings, and an holy
inquietude, almost like what we feel when we expect an intimate friend ; but
this inquietude does not hinder us from possessing our souls in patience and finally,
it necessarily includes a holy preparation. CLAUDE.
36
282, AN ESSAY ON THE
that devours all, and restores nothing ; whence it comes
to pass, that no man is in general so much despised,
while he lives, as a miser, and no man's death is so
much desired as his, He never opens his treasures, till
he is leaving the world ; he therefore can never receive
the fruits of gratitude, because bis favours are never
conferred till his death.
3d. Farther, this vice not only renders a man useless
to society ; but it even makes him hurtful and pernicious
to it. There is no right so inviolable, no law so holy,
which he will not violate greedily to amass riches, and
cautiously to preserve them. How many violent in-
croachments ! how many criminal designs 1 how many
dark and treasonable practices ! how many infamies and
wickednesses have proceeded from this perverse inclina-
tion. If a covetous man is barren in kindnesses, he is
fruitful in sins and iniquities. There are no boundaries,
which he cannot pass, no barriers which he cannot read-
ily go over to satisfy his base passions for money.
4th. By this we may already perceive how incom-
patible this vice is with true faith, and with the genius of
Christianity. The spirit of Christianity is a spirit of
love and charity, always beneficent, always ready to
prevent the necessities of our Christian brethren, kind
and full of compassion, inquiring into the wants of others,
and, without asking, seeking means to prevent them.
But avarice, on the contrary, makes a man hard, cruel,
pitiless, beyond the reach of complaints and tears, ren-
dering the miser not only jealous of the prosperity of
his neighbour : but even making him consider the pit-
tances of the miserable as objects of his covetous de-
sires.
5th. It is not without reason, that St. Paul calls av-
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 283
arice, idolatry ; for one of the principal characters of
this cursed inclination is a making gold and silver one's
God. It is money, in effect, which the covetous adores,
it is this that he supremely loves, this he prefers above
all other things, it is his last end, his life, his confidence,
and all his happiness. He, who fears God, consecrates
to him his first thoughts, and devotes to his glory and ser-
vice the chief of his cares, to his interests the whole of his
heart, and for the rest commits himself to the care of his
providence. It is the same with a covetous man in regard
to his treasures, he thinks only of them, he labours only
to increase and preserve them, he feels only for them,
he has neither rest, nor hope, which is not founded on
his riches ; he would offer incense to them, could he do
it without expense.
6th. It is surprising, and sometimes sufficiently di?
verting, to see in what manner all the other inclinations
of a miser, good and bad, virtues and vices, his love and
his hatred, his joy and his sorrow respect and obey his
avarice. They move or rest, act or do not act, agreea-
bly to the orders which this criminal passion gives them.
If he be naturally civil, mild, and agreeable in his con-
versation, he will not fail to lay aside all hjs civilities,
and good manners, when his avarice tells him he may
get something by doing so ; and, on the contrary, when
he has received some injury, when some insult has been
offered him, which is a just ground of resentment, you
may see in an instant his wrath is removed, and all his
vehemence abated, in hope of a little money offered to
appease him, or in fear of a small expense to gratify his
resentment, If an object of public joy, or sorrow offer
itself to his view, simply considering it in a general view,
he will be glad or sorry according to the nature of the
284 AN ESSAY ON THE
thing in question : but should this occasion of public joy
interest him ever so little, or in any manner prejudice
his pretensions, all on a sudden you will see all his joy
turned into sorrow. In like manner, when a public ca*
lamity gives him an opportunity of gaining any thing, all
his sorrow is turned into joy. If he ardently loves any
one, he will love him no longer if he begin to cost him
any thing ; avarice will turn all his love into indifference
and coldness. If reason and common honesty oblige him
to be of a party, who have justice on their side, he will
maintain and even exaggerate their rights, and defend
the equity of them, while his purse is not engaged; en-
gage his purse, and it is no longer the same thing ; what
was just is become now unjust to him ; he has quickly
whys, and however s in his mouth -but, however, we were,
mistaken in such a point- why should we be obstinate in
such, or such a thing ? &c,
IV.
OBSERVE THE RELATION OP ONE SUBJECT TO ANOTHER.
FOR example, always when in scripture God is called
a. Father, the relation of that term to children is evident,
and we are obliged not only to remark the paternal in-
clinations, which are in God towards us, and the advan-
tages, which we receive from his love, but also the du-
ties to which we are bound as children of such a father.
The same may be said of all these expressions of scrip-
ture, God is our God, we are his people; he is our por-
tion, we are his heritage ; he is our master, we are his
servants ; he is our king, we are the subjects of his Icing-
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON, 285
dom ; he is our prophet or teacher, we are his disciples ;
with many more of the same kind. When we meet
with such single and separate, they must he discussed
in relation to one another, and this relation must he par-
ticularly considered. Thus, when the kingdom of God ?
or of Jesus Christ, is spoken of, all things relative to this
kingdom must be considered; as, its laws; arms; throne ;
crown ; subjects ; .extent of dominion ; palace where the
king resides ; &c. So when our mystical marriage with
Jesus Christ is spoken of, whether it be where he is call-
ed a bridegroom, or his church a bride, you should, after
you have explained these expressions, turn your attention
to relative things 1 as the love of Jesus Christ to us,
which made him consent to this mystical marriage ; the
dowry, that we bring him, our sins and miseries ; the
communication, which he makes to us both of his name
and benefits ; the rest, that he grants us in his house,
changing our abode ; the banquet at his divine nuptials ;
the inviolable fidelity, which he requires of us ; the right
and power he acquires over us ; the defence and pro-,
tection, which he engages to afford us ; but, when these
relative things are discussed, great care must be taken
neither to insist on them too much, nor to descend to
mean ideas, nor even to treat of them one after another
in form of a parallel ; for nothing is more tiresome, than
treating these apart, and one after another. They must,
then, be associated together ; a body composed of many
images must be formed ; and the whole must be always.
animated with the sensible, and the spiritual.
AN ESSAY ON THE
V.
OBSERVE WHETHER SOME THINGS BE NOT SUPPOSED, WHICH
ARE NOT EXPRESSED.
THIS is a source of invention different from the for-
mer ; for the former is confined to things really relative ;
but this speaks in general of things supposed, which have
no relation to each other. For example, when we speak
of a change, what they call the terminus a quo necessa-
rily supposes the terminus ad quern : and the terminus
ad quern supposes the terminus a quo.
A covenant supposes two contracting parties ; a re-
conciliation effected, or a peace made, supposes war and
enmity ; a victory supposes enemies, arms, and a combat ;
life supposes death, and death life ; the day supposes
night, and the night day ; sometimes there are proposi-
tions, which necessarily suppose others, either because
they are consequences, depending on their principles, or
because they are truths naturally connected with others.
It is always very important to understand well what
things are supposed in a text ; for sometimes several
useful considerations may be drawn from them, and not
unfrequently the very expressions in the text include
them.
For example. Rom. xii. 17 :" Recompense to no
man evil for evil. In discussing this text you may very
properly observe the truths, which are implied, or sup-
posed in the words ; as 1. The disorder into which sin
has thrown mankind, so that men are exposed to receive
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 287
injuries and insults from each other. A society of sin-
ners is only a shadow of society; they are actually at
war with each other, and, like the Midianitish army,
turning every one his sword against his companion. The
spirit of the world is a spirit of dispersion rather than of
association. Different interests, diversities of sentiments,
varieties of opinions, contrarieties of passions make a
perpetual division, and the fruits of this division are in-
sults and injuries. It may be said of each in such socie-
ties, as of Ishmael in the prophecy, " his hand is against
every man, and every man's hand against him."
2. We must not imagine that faith, and the dignity
of a Christian calling raise the disciple of Christ above
injuries ; on the contrary, they expose him oftener to
evils than others ; as well because God himself will have
our faith tried, that we may arrive at heaven through,
many tribulations, as because a Christian profession nec-
essarily divides believers from infidels. The world and
sin form a kind of communion between the wicked and
worldly, which produces a mutual forbearance and friend-
ship : but there is no communion between a believer and
an unbeliever, any more than between light and dark-
ness, Christ and Belial. Thence come all the persecu-
tions of the church, and thence will good men continue
to meet with opposition from the wicked to the end of
time. Jesus Christ, when he sent his apostles, did not
fail to apprise them of this : he said, " I send you forth
as sheep in the midst of wolves :" and again, " If ye
were of the world, the world would love his own ; but
because ye are not of the world, therefore the world
hateth you."
You may make an observation on each of these sup-
posed truths ; and, having established the apostle's pre-
288 AN ESSAY ON THE
cept, by showing that private revenge is contrary to the
laws of Christianity, and incompatible with true piety,
you may observe a third supposed truth.
3. That the gospel not only forbids resentment and
revenge ; it even commands us to pardon offences ; and,
farther, obligeth us to do good to our enemies, and to
pray for our persecutors, according to the precepts of
Jesus Christj " Love your enemies^ bless them that curse
you, and pray for them that despitefully use you :" and
according to the doctrine of St. Paul in another place,
" If thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give
him drink*"
It remains that you take care in treating supposed
truths,
1st, Not to fetch them too far, or to bring them about
by long circuits of reasoning. Avoid this for two rea-
sons ; first, because you would render your discourse 06-
scure by it 5 for every body is not capable of seeing
truths, which are very distant from the text : and, sec-
ondly, because by this means you might bring in all the
whole body of divinity into your text ; which attempt
would be vicious, and contrary to the rules of good sense.
Of supposed truths, you must choose the most natural 9
and those which lie nearest the text.*
In the 2d place, do not enlarge on implied truths : it
is proper, indeed, that hearers should know them ; but
they are not principal articles.
* Thus Bishop FLETCHER, in a sermon concerning the rich man, who said,
Luke xii. 18. " I will pull down my barns," &c. "The rich man does not
propose to employ his fortune in faction ; he does not intend to increase his es-
tate by encroaching on his neighbours ; nor to get richer by extortion and usury ;
he does not mean to trouble and persecute good people, who do not live as he
doth ; nor does he design so give himself up to sordid avarice, or to ostentation
and pomp ; only, Sou/, take thine ease." ROBINSOW.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 289
And, 3dlj, take care also that these supposed things
be important^ either for instruction in general, or for
casting light particularly on the text, or for consolation,
or for the correction of vice, or practice of piety, or
some useful purpose ; otherwise you would deliver tri-
fling impertinences under the name of implied truths,
VI.
REFLECT ON THE PERSON SPEAKING OR ACTING.
For an example, let us take the last-mentioned text
of St. Paul, " recompense to no man evil for evil. Here
you may very pertinently remark, 1. That this precept
is more beautiful in the mouth of St. Paul, than it could
have been in that of any other man. The reason is this ;
he of all the men in the world had the greatest reason
for resentment upon worldly principles ; for never was
there a man more persecuted, never a man more unjust-
ly persecuted than he ; he was persecuted by his own
countrymen the Jews, persecuted by the Gentiles, per-
secuted by false brethren, persecuted by false apostles,
persecuted when he preached the gospel, persecuted
even by those, for whose salvation he was labouring, per-
secuted to prison, to banishment, to bonds, to blood ; how
amiable, then, is such a precept in the mouth of such a
man ! How forcible is such a precept, supported by one
of the greatest examples we can conceive ! by the ex-
ample of a man whose interest seems to dictate a quite
contrary practice ! When we give such precepts to the
worldly, they, never fail to say to us, Yes, yes ! you talk
finely ! you have never been insulted as we have ! had
you met with what we have, you would talk otherwise !.
37
290 AN ESSAtT ON THE
But there is no reason to say so to St. Paul, any more
than to Jesus Christ, his master, the author of this di-
vine morality ; for who was ever so persecuted as Jesus
Christ ? and, after him, who suffered more than his ser-
vant St. Paul ?
2. You may also very properly remark, that, to take
a different view of the apostle Paul, no man was more
obliged to teach and love such a morality than himself.
Why ? Because of all those, whom God in his ineffable
mercy had called to the knowledge of the truth, he had
been the most concerned in cruel efforts of rage against
God and his church ; all inflamed with fury he went from
Jerusalem to Damascus, to ravage the \flock of Jesus
Christ. In this raging violence of his hatred, God made
him feel his love, pardoned his sins, softened his heart,
and from heaven cried to him, " Saul, Saul, why perse-
cutest thou me ?" Who, then, could be more obliged
to preach mercy than this man, to whom God had show-
ed so much mercy ? Might he not say, when he gave
these rules of morality, what he said on another subject.
" I have received of the Lord that, which I deliver un-
to you ;" I have received the same mercy, which I teach
you. Add to this, the apostle had not only met with
pardoning love to an enemy on God's part, but he had
also experienced it from the church. Far from render-
ing him evil for evil, far from avenging his persecutions,
the disciples of Christ reached out the arms of their
love to him, received him into their communion, and num-
bered him with the apostles of Jesus Christ.
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 291
VII.
REFLECT ON THE STATE OP THE PERSONS SPEAKING
OR ACTING.
Thus in explaining 1. Thess, v. 16. Rejoice evermore,
you must not fail to consider the state of St. Paul, when
he wrote that epistle ; for he was at Athens, engaged in
that superstitious city, where, as it is said in the xvii. of
Acts, his spirit was " stirred in him," observing * the city
wholly given to idolatry ;"- where he was treated as a
" babbler, a setter forth of strange gods," and where, in
short, he was the object of Athenian ridicule and raille-
ry. Yet, amid so many just causes of grief, he exhorts
the Thessalonians always to preserve their spiritual joy ;
not that he meant to render them insensible to the evils,
which he suffered, nor to the afflictions of the new-born
church; but because our spiritual afflictions, I mean those,
which we suffer for the glory of God, and the good of
his church, are not incompatible with peace and joy of
conscience : on the contrary, it is particularly in these
afflictions that God gives the most lively joys, because
then he bestows on his children more abundant meas-
ures of his grace, and more intimate communion with
himself. Moreover, on these sad occasions we general-
ly become better acquainted with the providence of God,
we feel an assurance that nothing happens without his
order, and that, happen what will, " all things work to-
gether for good to them that love God." This gives us
true rest, a joy which nothing is capable of disturbing.
292 AN ESSAY ON THE
VIII.
REMARK THE TIME OF A WORD OR ACTION.
For example, St. Paul in his first epistle to Timothy-
requires, that in the public services of the church prayers
should he made for all men ; but " first for kings, and for
those that were in authority." Here it is very natural
to remark the time. It was when the church and the
apostles were every where persecuted ; when the faith-
ful were the objects of the hatred and calumny of all
mankind, and in particular of the cruelty of these Ty-
rants. Yet none of this rough treatment could stop the
course of Christian charity. St. Paul not only requires
every believer to pray for all men; but he would have
it done in public, that all the world might know the max-
ims of Christianity, always kind, patient, and benevolent.
Believers consider, themselves as bound in duty to all
men, though men do nothing to oblige them to it. He
was aware, malicious slanderers would call this worldly
policy and human prudence, and would say, Christians
only meant to flatter the great, and to court their fa-
vour ; yet even this calumny does not prevent St. Paul ;
he orders them to pray publicly, andj6rs for civil gov-
ernors. We ought always to discharge our duty, and,
for the rest, submit to the unjust accounts that men give
of our conduct.
IX.
OBSERVE PLACE.
St. Paul says to the Philippians, " forgetting the
things which are behind, and reaching forth unto those
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 293:
things which are before, I press toward the mark for
the prize of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus."
The place, where he writes this, furnishes a very beau-
tiful consideration. He was then in prison, at Rome,
loaded with chains, and deprived of his liberty; yet. he
speaks as if he were as much at liberty as any man in
the world ; as able to act as he pleased, and to dispose
of himself as ever : he talks of having entered a course,
running a race, forgetting things behind, pressing toward
those thai; were before, and, in short, of hoping to gain
a prize ; all these are actions of a man enjoying full lib-
erty. How could he, who was in a prison, be at the same
time on a race-course ? how could he run, who was load-
ed with irons ? how could he hope to win a prize, who
every day expected a sentence of death ? But it is not
difficult to reconcile these things : his bonds and impris-
onment did not hinder the course of his faith and obedi-
ence. His prison was converted into an agreeable Sta-
dium, and death for the Gospel might well be consider-
ed under the image of a complete victory ; for a Martyr
gains an unfading crown as a reward of his sufferings,
X.
CONSIDER THE PERSONS ADDRESSED.
Let us again take St.' Paul's words for an example.
"Recompense to no man evil for evil," Rom. xii. 17.
They, to whom the apostle addressed these words, were
Romans, whose perpetual maxim was violently to re-
venge public injuries, and totally to destroy those, who
intended to destroy them, or had offered them any af-
fronts ; witness the Carthagenians and Corinthians. They
.totally destroyed Carthage, because she had carried her
294 AN ESSAY ON THE
arms into Italy by Hannibal's means, and had been upon
the point of ruining Rome. Corinth they sacked and
burnt for having affronted their ambassadors. You may
also remark this particular circumstance ; that, although
the Romans had succeeded in avenging their injuries,
and the empire owed its grandeur to such excesses, yet
their success did not hinder the apostle from saying,
" Recompense to no man evil for evil ;" because neither
examples nor successes ought to be the rules of our con-
duct, but solely the will of God, and the law of Chris^
tianity.
XL
EXAMINE THE PARTICULAR STATE OF PERSONS ADDRESSED.
For example, " Recompense to no man evil for evil."
St. Paul writes to Romans ; but to Roman Christians,
who saw themselves hated and persecuted by their fel-
low-citizens, and in general abused by the whole world.
Yet, however reasonable resentment might appear at
first sight, the apostle would not have them obey such
passions as the light of reason, the instinct of nature, and
the desire of their own preservation might seem to ex-?
cite : he exhorted them to leave vengeance to God, and
advised them only to follow the dictates of love. The
greatest persecutors of the primitive Christians were
the Jews, on whom the Roman Christians could easily
have avenged themselves under various pretexts ; for
the Jews were generally hated and despised by all other
nations, and nothing could be easier than to avail them-
selves of that public hatred, to which the religion of the
Jews exposed them. Neverthelsss, St. Paul not only
says in general, "Render not evil for evil ;" but in partic-
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 295
iilar, Recompense to no man evil for evil. As if he had
said, Do not injure those, on "whom you could most
easily avenge yourselves ; hurt not the most violent en-
emies of the name of Jesus Christ, and of the Christian
profession ; not even those, who have crucified your Sa-
viour, and every day strive to destroy his gospel.
XII.
CONSIDER THE PRINCIPLES OF A WORD OR ACTION.
For example, John v. 14. " Behold ! thou art
made whole, sin no more, lest a worse thing come unto
thee." This was the language of Jesus Christ to the
man whom he had just before healed of an infirmity of
thirty-eight years' standing* Him Jesus now found in the
temple. It is not imaginable that this meeting was
fortuitous, and unforeseen to Jesus Christ ; his provi-
dence, no doubt, conducted the man that way, directed
him to the temple, whither he himself went to seek
him. Examine then, upon what 'principles Jesus Christ
went to seek this miserable sinner.
In like manner, if you had to examine these words of
Jesus Christ to the Samaritan woman, " Go, and call thy
husband," John iv. You might examine the intention of
Jesus Christ in this expression. He did not speak thus,
because he was ignorant what sort of a life this woman
lived ; he knew that, to speak properly, she had no hus-
band. It was then, 1. A word of trial ; for the Lord
said this to give her an opportunity of making a free
confession, / have no husband. 2. It was also a word of
kind reproof; for he intended to convince her of the sin
in which she lived. 3. It was also a word of grace ;
for the censure tended to the woman's consolation. 4,
296 AN ESSAY ON THE
It was farther, a word of wisdom ; for our Lord intend-
ed to take occasion at this meeting to discover himself
to her, and more clearly to convince her, that he had a
perfect knowledge of all the secrets of her life, as he
presently proved by saying, " Thou hast well said, I
have no husband ; for thou hast- had five husbands, and
he, whom thou hast now, is riot thy husband.
Were you going to explain the ninth verse of the
first of Acts, where it is said, " When Jesus was taken
up, his disciples beheld him," it would be proper to re-
mark the sentiments of the disciples in that moment,
and to show from what principles proceeded that atten-
tive and earnest looking after their divine Master, while
he ascended to heaven.
XIII.
CONSIDER CONSEQUENCES.
Thus, when you explain the doctrine of God's mercy,
it is expedient (at least sometimes) to remark the good
and lawful uses, which we ought to make of it. These
uses are, to renounce ourselves ; to be sensible of our
infinite obligations to God, who pardons so many sins
with so much bounty ; to consecrate ourselves entirely
to his service, as persons over whom he has acquired a
new right ; and to labour incessantly for his glory, in
gratitude for what he has done for our salvation.
You may also observe the false and pernicious con-
sequences, which ungrateful and wicked men, who sin
that grace may abound, pretend to derive from this doc-
trine. They say, we are no longer to consider justice
now we are under grace ; the more we sin, the more
COMPOSITION OF A SEftMON. 297
God will be glorified in pardoning us ; this mercy will
endure all the time of our lives ; and therefore it will
be enough to apply to it at the hour of death ; with
many more such false consequences, which must be both
clearly stated, and fully refuted.
It is much the same with the doctrine of the effica-
cious grace of the Holy Ghost in our conversion; for
the just and lawful consequences, which are drawn from
it are, 1. That such is the greatness of our depravity, it
can be rectified only by almighty aid. 2. That we should
be humble, because there is nothing good in us. 3. That
we should ascribe all the glory of our salvation to God,
who is the only author of it. 4. That we must adore the
depths of the great mercy of our God, who freely gave
his Holy Spirit to convert us.
You must remark at the same time the abuses, and
false consequences, which insidious sophisters draw from
this doctrine, as that, since the conversion of men is by
the almighty power of God, it is needless to preach his
word ; and to address to them on God's part exhorta-
tions, promises and threatenings ; that it is in vain to tell
a sinner, it is his duty to turn to God, as without effica-
cious grace (which does not depend upon the sinner) he
cannot do it ; that it has a tendency to make men negli-
gent about their salvation to tell them, it does not de-
pend on their power. These, and such like abuses, must
be proposed and solidly refuted.
Moreover, this method must be taken, when you haye
occasion to treat of the doctrines of election and repro-
bation ; the propitiatory sacrifice of Christ's blood ; and,
in general, almost all religious subjects require it ; for
there is not one of them all, which is not subject to use
and abuse. Take care, however, when you propose
38
298 AN ESSAY ON THE
these good and bad consequences, that you do it proper-
ly, and when an occasion naturally presents itself; for
were they introduced with any kind of affectation and
force, it must be disagreeable.
XIV.
REFLECT ON THE END PROPOSED IN AN EXPRESSION OR AN
ACTION.
Although this is not very different from the way of
principles, of which we have already spoken, yet it may
afford a variety in discussing them.
If, for example, you were speaking of justification,
in the sense in which St. Paul taught it, you must ob-
serve the ends, which the apostle proposed, as 1. To
put a just difference between Jesus Christ and Moes,
the law and the gospel, and to show against those, who
would blend them together, and so confound both in one
body of religion, that they cannot be so united. 2. To
preserve men from that pharisaical pride, which reign-
ed among the Jews, who sought to establish their own
righteousness, and not the righteousness of God. 3. To
take away such inadequate remedies as the law by
way of shadow exhibited for the expiation of sins ; as
sacrifices and purifications ; as well as those, which
pagan superstition proposed, such as washing in spring
water, offering victims to their gods, &c. 4. To bring
men to the true and only atonement for sin, which is the
blood of Jesus Christ.
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 299
XV.
CONSIDER WHETHER THERE BE ANY THING REMARKABLE IN
THE MANNER OP THE SPEECH OR ACTION.
For example. " In all these things we are more than
conquerors through him that loved us." Rom. viii. 37.
You may remark, that there is -a more than ordinary
force in these words, more than conquerors ; for they ex-
press an heroical triumph. He does not simply say, We
hear our trials with patience ; he not only says, We shall
conquer in this conflict ; but he affirms, We are more than
conquerors. It is much that faith resists trials without
being oppressed ; it is more to conquer these trials after
a rude combat; but to affirm the believer shall be
more than a conqueror, is as much as to say, he shall con-
quer without a combat, and triumph without resistance ;
it is as much as to say, he shall make trials the ' matter
of his joy and glory, as the apostle says, we glory in trib-
ulation, considering them not as afflictions and sorrows,
but as divine honours and favours. This was also the
apostle's mind, when he wrote to the Philippians, " unto
you it is given in the behalf of Christ, not only to believe
on him, but also to suffer for his sake," He considers
sufferings as gifts of the liberality of God, for which the
faithful are obliged to be thankful. So in this other
passage, " I am persuaded, that neither death, nor life,
nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things pres-
ent, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any
other creature shall be able to separate us from the love
of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord." You may
here remark the heroism and, magnanimity of St. Paul
300 AN ESSAY ON THE
His faith seems to defy all the powers of nature. He.
assembles them all- life, death, angels, &c. to triumph
over them, and to exult in their defeat. This language
marks a full persuasion of the favour of God, and an in-
vincible confidence in his love.
Such remarks as these may be made upon many ex-
pressions of Jesus Christ, wherein are discovered dignity
and majesty, which cannot belong to any mere creature :
as when he says, " Before Abraham was, I am." " While
I am in the world I am the light of the world." "All
mine are thine, and thine are mine, and I am glorified in
them." " Ye believe in God, believe also in me."
^ Whatsoever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do.' 5
There are many passages of the same kind,
XVI.
COMPARE WORDS AND ACTIONS WITH SIMILAR WORDS AND AC-
TIONS.
The Evangelist speaks of ^ the things, that Jesus be-
gan to do and to teach," Acts i. 1. Now he says the
same of Moses, " he was mighty in words and in deeds,"
Acts vii. 22. Here you may observe, that these two
things joined together, doing and teaching, are distin-
guishing characters of a true prophet, who never sepa-
rates practice from doctrine. You may then make an
edifying comparison between Moses and Jesus Christ ;
both did and taught ; but there was a great difference
' between the teaching of one and that of the other.
One taught justice, the other mercy; one abased, the
other exalted; one terrified, the other comforted.
There was also a great difference between the deeds of
the one, and those of the other? Most of the miracles
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 301
of Moses were miracles of destruction, insects, frogs, hail,
and others of the same kind, with which he chastised
the Egyptians. But the miracles of Jesus Christ were
always miracles of benevolence, raising the dead, giving
sight to the blind, &c.
So again, when the infidelity of the Jews in reject-
ing the Messiah is discussed, you may examine their
prejudices and their maxims, as they are narrated in the
gospel ; and these you may compare with those of the
church of Rome in rejecting the reformation ; for they
are very much alike.
So again, when you consider St. Paul's answers to the
objections of the Jews, who pleaded that they were the
people of God, and that his covenant belonged to Abra-
ham and his posterity ; you may observe, that these an-
swers are like ours to the Roman church, when they
affirm they are the church of God. As the apostle dis-
tinguisheth two Israels, one after the flesh, and the other
after the spirit, so we distinguish two churches ; one,
which is only so in outward profession before men, pos-
sessing the pulpits, the churches, and the, schools ; and
the other, which is the church in the sight of God, hav-
ing a holy doctrine, and a lively faith. These an-
swer precisely to the apostle's " Israel after the
flesh, and Israel after the spirit." As the apostle
applies the promises of God, and their accomplish-
ment, not to Israel after the flesh, but to the Israel-
ites after the spirit, so we also apply the promises,
which God has made to his church, not to those, who
occupy the pulpits, the churches, and the schools ; but
to them who believe and practise the pure doctrine of
the gospeL As St. Paul defines the true people of God
to be those s whom God by his electing love hath taken
302 AN ESSAY ON THE
from among men, so we define the true church by the
same electing grace ; maintaining that the Lord has
made all the excellent promises, with which scripture
abounds, to his elect only, and that his elect are such as
he has chosen according to his good pleasure, without
any regard to particular places, conditions, or qualifica-
tions among men.
XVII.
REMARK THE DIFFERENCES OF WORDS AND ACTIONS ON DIFFER-
ENT OCCASIONS.
When a weak scrupulosity, or a tenderness of con-
science was in question, which put some of the faithful
upon eating only herbs, St. Paul exhorted the strong to
bear the infirmities of the weak ; " let not him that eat-
eth, despise him that eateth not ; and let not him, which
eateth not, judge him that eateth ; for God hath receiv-
ed him." Rom. xiv. 3. But when the same St. Paul
speaks of false teachers, who wanted to impose a yoke
on conscience, and who under pretext of meats and days
were attempting to join Moses with Jesus Christ, as if
Christians were yet obliged to observe the ceremonial
law ; then the apostle has no patience with them, but
condemns, and anathematises them, as people who
preached another gospel, and exhorts the faithful to
" stand fast in the liberty, wherewith Christ had made
them free, and not to be entangled again with the yoke
of bondage." Gal. y. 1.
So again, when you find in the gospel, that Jesus
Christ sometimes forbade his disciples to publish the
miracles that he wrought, and to declare his divinity ;
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON, 303
and, at other times, that he ordered them to publish up-
on the house-tops what they had heard in private, and tp
preach to all nations the mysteries of his kingdom, you
must remark, that this difference is owing to different
occasions. While Jesus Christ was upon earth, the mys-
teries of his kingdom were covered with the veil of his
humiliation, it being necessary in some sense to conceal
them ; but after his exaltation, it became proper to pub-
lish them to the whole earth.
The same diversity may be remarked in what the
Lord Jesus said to the Canaanitish woman 5 that he was
" only sent to the lost sheep of the house of Israel ;"
and that it was " not meet to give the children's bread to
dogs." This seems contrary to an almost infinite num-
ber of passages of scripture, which affirm, Jesus Christ
is " the light of the Gentiles ; to him shall the gather-
ing of the people be." These, and all other such passa-
ges will perfectly agree, if you distinguish time and oc-
casion. While Jesus Christ was upon earth, he was the
minister of the circumcision, as St. Paul speaks, that is,
his personal, ministerial commission was only to the Jews :
but when he was exalted to glory, his ministry extended
over the whole earth.
XVIII.
CONTRAST WORDS AND ACTIONS.
Thus you may oppose the agonies and terrors, which
seized Jesus Christ at the approach of death, against the
constancy and joy of the martyrs, who flew to martyr-
dom as to a victory. This contrariety of emotions is ac-
counted for by the difference of the persons. Jesus
304 AN ESSAY ON THE
Christ was the Mediator of men towards God, bearing
their sins, and engaging with the eternal justice of his
Father : but the martyrs were believers, reconciled to
God, fighting under Christ's banner, and as mystical sol-
diers maintaining his righteous claims. One was filled
with a sense of God's wrath against men : the others
were filled with a sense of his love. Christ met death
as an armed enemy, and as one who, till that time, had
a right to triumph over mankind ; but martyrs approach-
ed him as a vanquished enemy, or rather as an enemy
reconciled, who having changed his nature was become
more favourable to men. In one word, Jesus Christ was
at war with death : whereas, death was at peace and
in friendship with the martyrs.
In general, we may affirm, that contrast is one of the
most beautiful topics of Christian rhetoric; and that
which furnishes the most striking illustrations. Great
care, however, must be taken, that the oppositions be
natural, easy to comprehend, and properly placed in a
full, clear light.
XIX.
EXAMINE THE GROUNDS, OR CAUSES OF AN ACTION OR AN
EXPRESSION ; AND SHOW THE TRUTH OR EQUITY OF IT.
For example. When the incarnation of Jesus Christ
is in question, as in this text, the word was made flesh, you
may recur to the foundations of this truth, as revealed
in scripture, in order to show that a divine person did
take upon him real, true humanity, in opposition to the
notions of some ancient heretics, who imagined that the
human nature of Christ was only apparent For this
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 305
purpose, you must look into the ancient prophecies for
such passages as attribute two natures, the human and
divine, to the one person of the Messiah. To the same
purpose you may also apply New Testament texts.
which speak of the same subject; and you may farther
observe such reasons of this singular economy, as theol-
ogy furnisheth, and which are taken from the design of
our salvation.
In like manner, when you treat of the resurrection of
Christ, or his ascension to heaven, you must take this to-
pic, and show the fidelity and credibility of the testimo-
ny borne by his apostlefs. Your argument may be es-
tablished by observing what followed his resurrection
and ascension ; as the effusion of the Spirit, the aboli-
tion of the empire of the devil and his -idols, the conver-
sion of whole nations to the worship of the one true
God, miracles, prophecies, &c.
The same method is proper, when some predictions
are your subjects ; as the destruction of Jerusalem, and
the rejection of the Jews : for you may either narrate
history to show the execution, or you may reason upon
the subject to show how wonderful the divine wisdom
was in that dispensation : the whole will evince the truth
of the predictions.
I said also, the grounds and causes of an action or ex-
pression might be examined, to show the equity and truth
of either.* This principally takes place, when any thing
* Thus MASSILLOST persuades to a life of piety, though accompanied with
many disgustful circumstances ; John x. 31. " Then the Jews took up stones to
stone him." These were the returns of gratitude which Jesus Christ received of
men ; these the consolations with which heaven permitted him to be exercised
in the painful course of his ministry. At one time they treated him as a Samari-
tan, as one that had a devil ; at another " they took up stones to stone^him." Aud
thus the Son of God passed the whole time of his life, always exposed to the most
39
306 AN ESSAY ON THE
surprising and uncommon is in question ; for such things at
first seem to shock the minds of auditors ; or when you
are pressing home an exhortation to the practice of any
duty, which cannot be performed without difficulty. For
example. The Pharisees complain in the gospel, that
the disciples of Christ did not keep the traditions of the
elders. In order to justify the disciples, show the foun-
dations of Christian liberty, and remark, that the true
worship of God does not consist in the observation of
external ceremonies, much less in the observation of hu-
man traditions and customs : but it consists of true piety,
real inward holiness, and actual obedience to the com-
mandments of God.
So again, when Jesus Christ, after he had healed the
paralytic man, commanded him to " sin no more, lest a
worse thing should come unto him." You must go to
the grounds of the expression, to show its equity. Now
these are, that some sins had drawn the wrath of God
upon him before that, if he continued in them, that
wrath would certainly return that the favours, which
we receive from God, engage us to glorify him by good
works, &c. This topic is of great use in explaining the
obstinate contradictions, meeting with almost none but such as were insensible
of his benefit, and rebellious against his preaching ; and all this without his let-
ting fall the least sign of impatience, or the least complaint.
But must I add? We, my brethren ! we his members and disciples, alas !
the smallest disgusts, the least oppositions we meet with, in the practice of piety,
offend our delicacy ! Nothing is to be heard but complaining and murmuring,
when we cease to taste those pleasing attractions, which render duty a delight.
Tossed and distressed, we are almost tempted to abandon God, and return to the
wcrld, as to a gentler and more convenient master ; in short, we would have no-
thing but comforts and pleasures in the service of God !
But we ought to abide in a course of obedience, though we do meet with
disgusts ; Because, disgusts are inevitable in this life ; those of piety are not so
bitter as we imagine ; they are less than those of the world; and, lastly, let them
be as great as they may, pious people have resources which worldlings have not.
MASSILJJON.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 307
commandments of the law, the equity of which must be
made to appear ; for it must be proved, that they are
all founded in nature, and have an inviolable fitness in
the order of things.
In short, it is proper to take this method with all ex-
hortations to piety, charity, &c. which are found in scrip-
ture. In order to persuade people to the practice of
them, their fitness must be showed, by opening the
grounds, reasons, and principles of our obligations to the
practice of all these virtues.
XX.
REMARK THE GOOD AND BAD IN EXPRESSIONS AND ACTIONS.
This topic is of very great use in explaining the his-
tories recorded in the gospel, where you will frequently
find actions and words, which may be called mixed ; be-
cause, in general, they proceed from some good princi-
pies,' and, in particular, they have a good deal of weak-
ness and infirmity in them. If you would explain Matt.
xvi. 22. " Then Peter took him, and began to rebuke
him, saying, Be it far from thee, Lord, this shall not be
unto thee ;" you may observe what there is good and
what bad in this expression of St. Peter. 1. You see
herein his love to his master ; for his not being able to
bear the discourse of Jesus Christ concerning his suffer-
ings at Jerusalem could only proceed from his ardent af-
fection to him. 2. Herein appears not that cold and
lukewarm regard, which most men have for one another,
but a most lively affection, interesting him for his mas-
ter, an affection full of tenderness, which could not even
308 AN ESSAY ON THE
bear to hear a word, or entertain a thought about the
death of Jesus Christ. 3. You may observe an honest
freedom, which put him upon freely addressing Jesus
Christ himself, using that familiar access, which his con-
descension allowed his disciples, without a mixture of
mean and despicable timidity. 4. You see, in fine, a
strong faith in his master's power, as by addressing, him
he seems persuaded, that it depended only on himself to
suffer or not to suffer; "'Lord, be it far from thee, this
shall not be unto thee." Now, all these are good dispo-
sitions. Here follow the bad ones. 1. Peter discovers
gross ignorance of the ways of divine wisdom in sending
Jesus Christ into the world ; for he does not seem yet
to know, that Jesus Christ must needs suffer; and with
this ignorance the Lord reproaches him in the next verse,
" Thou savourest not the things, which are of God ; but
those, which are of men." 2. His love to his master
Had something merely human and carnal in it, since he
only considered the preservation of his temporal life, and
concerned himself only about his body, instead of elevat-
ing his mind to that superior glory of Jesus Christ, which
was to follow his sufferings, or considering the great
work of man's salvation, to perform which he came into
the world. 3. You may also remark a troublesome and
criminal boldness. He means to be wiser than Jesus
Christ. " Peter took him," says the evangelist, " and
began to rebuke him, saying, Be it far from thee." Rash
attempt ! as if Peter were called into the counsel of God
and Jesus Christ his Son, to give his opinion concerning
this grand affair. 4. It even seems, as if Peter, hearing
Christ speak of his sufferings, imagined, this discourse
proceeded only from his fear of death, and from a mean
timidity ; for he aims to encourage and comfort him as
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 309
we do persons whose fears exceed the bounds of reason.
" Lord!" says he, " be it far from thee, tliis shall not be
to thee ;" as if he had said to him, Do not afflict your-
self, your, apprehensions of death are groundless, noth-
ing of this is like to happen to you.
XXI.
SUPPOSE THINGS.
This topic is principally used in controversy. For
example : When you are speaking of the merit of good
works, you may take this way of supposition, and say,
Let us suppose, that Jesus Christ and his apostles held
the doctrines of the church of Rome, and that they be-
lieved, men merited eternal life by their good works :
let us suppose, that they intended to teach us this doc-
trine in the gospels and epistles ; tell me, I beseech you,
if upon this supposition (which is precisely what our ad-
versaries pretend) they ought to have affirmed what they
have. Tell me, pray, do you believe yourself well and
sufficiently instructed in the doctrine of the merit of good
works, when you are told, " when you have done all these
things, ye are unprofitable servants ?" Again, when the
example of a miserable publican is proposed to you, who
prays, " God be merciful to me a sinner, who smites his
breast, arid dares not lift his eyes to heaven ; when he
is placed in opposition to a pharisee, glorying in his works ;
and when you are informed, the first went down " to his
house justified rather than the other" when you are
told, " if it be by grace, it is no more of works, other-
wise grace is no more grace ; if it be by works, it is no
more grace, otherwise work is no more work :" when
310 AN ESSAY ON THE
you are told, " you are saved by grace through faith,
and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God" when
you are assured, you are "justified freely by grace,
through the redemption, that is in Christ Jesus, not of
works, lest any man should boast" when you hear, that
" to him that worketh not, but believeth on him, that
justifieth the ungodly, his faith is counted for righteous-
ness" when you are taught to believe, " the wages of
sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life" tell me,
I once more intreat you, can you persuade yourself that
Jesus Christ and his apostles, by all these means, intend-
ed to teach you, that man acquires justification, and a
right to eternal life, by the merit of his works ?
You may also make such suppositions in morality as
well as in controversy, in order to give greater weight
to your exhortations.*
XXII.
GUARD AGAINST OBJECTIONS.
There are very few texts of scripture where this
topic may not be made use of; and it is needless to men-
* Bishop MASSILLON'S sermon on Christ's divinity, is farmed on this plan
1 If Jesus Christ were only a mere man,
I. The glory of his ministry would be an inevitable occasion of idolatry to us.
An illustrious person was "expected by all mankind ; promised by the prophets ;
his birth, life, miracles, &c. were all grand, glorious, and unheard of, and all cor-
responding with prophecy.
II. The spirit of his ministry would become a dreadful snare to our innocence.
He preached and practised holiness, as even they who deny his divinity own.
The world received numberless advantages, in consequence of his coming. He
foretold many events since fulfilled. If then we own the truth of the bible, we
must own his divinity." MASS. Serm. Advent.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 311
tion examples, they will occur to every one without much
reflection.
Remark, however, objections must be natural, and
popular, not far-fetched, nor too philosophical ; in a word,
they must be such as it is absolutely necessary to observe
and refute.
They must be proposed in a clear and simple style,
without rhetorical exaggerations ; yet not unadorned nor
unaffecting.
I think, it is never advisable to state objections, and
defer the answers to them till another opportunity ; an-
swer them directly, forcibly, and fully.
Here, it may be asked, whether, in stating objections
to be answered, it be proper to propose them altogeth-
er at once, and then come to the answers ; or whether
they should be proposed and answered one by one ? I
suppose discretional good sense must serve for both guide
and law upon this subject. If three or four objections
regard only one part of the text, if each may be propos-
ed and answered in a few words, it would not be amiss
to propose these objections altogether, distinguishing
them however by first, second, third ; this may be done
agreeably ;* but if these objections regard different parts
of the text, or different matters, if they require to be
proposed at full length, and if it would also take some
time to answer them, it would be impertinence to pro-
pose them all together : in such a case they must be
proposed and answered apart.
312 AN ESSAY ON THE
XXIII.
CONSIDER CHARACTERS OF MAJESTY, MEANNESS, INFIRMITY,
NECESSITY, UTILITY, EVIDENCE, &C.
Majesty and magnanimity*
Take an example of this from John xiv. 1. " Let
Hot your heart be troubled ; you believe in God, believe
also in me." These words are characterised by a ma-
jesty, which exalts Jesus Christ above all ordinary pas-
tors, and above all the prophets ; for who beside the
Son of God could say, " Ye believe in God, believe also
in me ?" These words equal Jesus Christ to the eter-
nal Father, and make him the object of our faith and
confidence as well as the Father ; for they imply that
faithful souls may repose an entire confidence in his pow-
er, protection, and government, and that the shadow of
his wings will dissipate the sorrows of their minds, and
leave no more room for fear.
You see also a character of tenderness and infinite love
towards his disciples, which appears in the assurance with
which he inspires them, and in the promise which he tac-
itly makes them, of always powerfully supporting, and nev-
er forsaking them. The same characters, or others like
them, may be observed in all this discourse of our Sa-
viour, which goes on to the end of the sixteenth chap-
ter. As in these words, " I am the way, the truth and
the life ;" in these, " He that hath seen me, Philip, hath
seen the Father ;" in these, " Whatsoever ye ask in my
name I will do it 5" and again in these, " I will not leave
you orphans ; I will come to you." In general, we see
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 313
almost in every verse majesty, tenderness, love of holi-
ness, confidence of victory, and other such characters,
which it is important to remark.
X
Meanness and infirmity.
You will very often observe characters of meanness
and infirmity in the words and actions of the disciples of
Jesus Christ. As when they asked him, " Wilt thou at
this time restore again the kingdom to Israel ?" Acts. i.
6. You see, even after the resurrection of Jesus Christ,
they were full of that low and carnal idea, which they
had entertained, of a temporal Messiah.
You also see a rash curiosity in their desiring to know
the times and seasons of those great events, which God
thought fit to conceal.
Observe again, Peter's vision. A great sheet was
let down from heaven, and filled with all sorts of ani-
mals ; a voice said to him, " Rise Peter, kill and eat ;"
to which he answered, " Not so, Lord ; for I have nev-
er eaten any thing that is common and unclean." You
see in this answer an over-scrupulous conscience, all em-
barrassed with legal ceremonies ; and a very defective,
imperfect knowledge of gospel liberty.
There is almost an infinite number of texts in the
New Testament, where such infirmities appear; and
you must not fail to remark them in order to prove ;
1. That grace is compatible with much human weak-
ness. 2. That heavenly light arises by degrees upon
the mind, and that it is with the neAV man as with the nat-
ural man, who is born an infant, lisps in his childhood, and
arrives at perfection insensibly and by little and little.
3. That the strongest and fartherest advanced Christians
40
314 ' AN ESSAY ON THE
ought to bear the infirmities of the weak, since God him-
self does not " break the bruised reed, nor quench the
smoking flax." This he was pleased to exemplify in
the most ample manner in the person .of Jesus Christ,
when he was upon earth.
Necessity.
In regard to necessity, you may very often remark
this in explaining the doctrines of religion ; as when you
speak of the mission of Jesus Christ into the world; of
his familiar conversation with men ; of his death ; res-
urrection ; and ascension to heaven, &c.; for you may
not only consider the truth, but also the necessity of each ;
and by this means open a most beautiful field of theolo-
gical argument and elucidation.
The same may be affirmed of sending the Comfort-
er, that is the Holy Ghost into the world ; in explaining
ing these words, " I will pray the Father, and he shall
give you another comforter." John xiv. 16. You may
very properly consider the necessity of this cornforter ;
either because without his light and help we can never
release ourselves from the bondage of sin and satan ; or
because without his assistance all that Jesus Christ has
done in the economy of salvation would be entirely use-
less to us. You may also observe the necessity of his
eternal abode with us ; because it is not enough to be
once converted by his efficacious power ; we need his
continual presence and efficacy, to carry on and finish
the work of sanctification ; otherwise we should quick-
ly relapse into our first condition.
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 315
Utility.
Where a thing does not appear absolutely necessary,
you may remark its utility ; as, in some particular mira-
cles of Jesus Christ ; in some peculiar afflictions of the
faithful ; in the manner in which St. Paul was convert-
ed ; and in an infinite number of subjects which present
themselves to the preacher to be discussed.
Evidence,
Evidence must be particularly pressed in articles
which are disputed, or which are likely to be contro-
verted. For example ; were you to treat of the sec-
ond commandment in opposition to the custom and prac-
tice of worshipping images in the church of Rome, you
should press the evidence of the words. As, 1. It has
pleased God to place this command not in some obscure
part of revelation, but in the moral law ; in that law,
every word of which he caused to proceed from the
midst of the flames. 2. He uses not only the term im-
age, but likeness, and specifies even the likenesses of all
the things in the world, of those which are in heaven
above, of those which are in the earth beneath, and of those
which are under the earth. 3. In order to prevent all
the frivolous objections of the human mind, he goes yet
farther, not only forbidding the worshipping of them, but
also the making use of them in any manner of way ; and,
which is more, he even forbids the making of them.
Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them. Thou shalt not
serve them. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven
image, &c. 4. Add to all this, that the Lord subjoined
the highest interests to inforce it. He interested herein
316 AN ESSAY ON THE
his majesty, his covenant, and his infinite power; for
(says he) / am Jehovah thy God. He goes farther, and
interests his jealousy, that is, that inexorable justice,
which avenges affronts offered to his love. Yea, in or-
der to touch us still more sensibly, he even goes so far
as to interest our children, threatening us with that ter-
rible wrath, which does not end with the parents, but
passes down to their posterity. What could the Lord
say more plainly and evidently, to show that he would
suffer no image in his religious worship ? After all this,
is it not the most criminal presumption to undertake to
distinguish, in order to elude the force of this command-
ment ?
You may, if you choose, over and above all this, add
Moses's explication of this command in the fourth of
Deuteronomy.
You may also use the same character of evidence
when you explain several passages, which adversaries
abuse, as these words, " this is my body which is brok-
en for you ;" and these in the sixth of John, " eat the
flesh of the son of man and drink his blood ;" and those
passages also in St. James, which speak of justification
by works ; for in treating these passages in opposition to
the false senses, which the church of Rome gives of
them, you must assemble many circumstances, and place
each in its proper light, so that all together they may
diffuse a great brightness upon the text, and clearly
show its true sense.*
* It is fashionable with many divines, to boast of their aversion to controver-
sy, and to make a merit of teaching only such doctrines as are not disputable.
But, is there any one doctrine of natural or revealed religion, which is not con-
troverted ? Does not every deist deny our bible, and every atheist the being of
our God ? A man, therefore, who determines to teach only undisputed articles,
determines, ipso facto, to teach nothing at all.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON.
XXIV.
REMARK DEGREES.
For example, Gal. i. " If ,we, or an angel from
heaven, preach any other gospel unto you, than that,
which we have preached unto you, let him be accurs-
ed." After you have remarked the extreme force and
significancy of the words, observe that the apostle de-
nounced an anathema twice, even denouncing it against
himself, should he ever be guilty of what he condemns,
denouncing it even against an angel from heaven in the
same case.
You must observe, the apostle does not always use
the same vehemence when he speaks against error. In
the fourteenth of the epistle to the Romans he contents
himself with calling those weak in the faith, who would
eat only herbs, and exhorts the other believers to bear
with them. In the third chapter of the first to the Co-
rinthians he protests to those, who build with wood, hay,
and stubble upon Christ the foundation, that their
work should be burnt, but that they should be saved,
though it should be as by fire. In the seventeenth of
Acts we are told, his spirit was stirred, when he saw
the idolatry and superstition of the Athenians. Else-
where, he says, " if any man defile the temple of
God, him shall God destroy." In all these there
is a force ; but nothing like what appears in these reit-
No theological subject requires more accurate investigation than this article
of evidence. Evidence is that which demonstrates. Now there are various kinds
and degrees of evidence, and it would very much contribute to clear a point in
debate, were disputants first of all to agree on certain data, or what should be
allowed evidence of the case in question. ROBINSON.
318 AN ESSAY ON
crated words, " though, we, or an angel from heaven,
preach any other gospel to you, than that, which we
have preached unto you, let him be accursed. As we
said before, so say I now again, If any man preach any
other gospel unto you than that which we have preach-
ed, let him be accursed." Why so ? because the apos-
tle speaks here of an essential corruption of the gospel,
which the false apostles aimed at in the churches of
Galatia ; they Avere annihilating the grace of Christ by
associating it with the mosaic economy ; they aimed at
the entire ruin of the church by debasing the purity of
the gospel. In this case the conscience of this good
man could contain no longer ; he stretched his zeal and
vehemence as far as possible ; he became inexorable s
and pronounced anathemas; nothing prevented him,
neither the authority of the greatest men, no, nor yet
the dignity of the glorious angels ; " if we, or an angel
from heaven, preach any other gospel, let him be ac-
cursed."
XXV.
OBSERVE DIFFERENT INTERESTS.*
Thus if you are explaining the miracle, which Jesus
Christ wrought in the Synagogue on a Sabbath-day,
* MASSILLON, in a sermon on Christmas-day, composes by this topick " God
and man are interested in Christ's birth."
I. Gad's glory was concerned. For idolatry had transferred that worship to
others, which was due only to him. Formality prevailed among the Jews, and
they rendered him a service not worthy of him. Philosophy had conveyed away
the glory of his providence and eternal wisdom. Three daring insults, which
mankind offered to God, and which Christ came to remove.
II. The peace of mankind was interested in Christ's birth, for they had rob-
bed one another of that, by pride, by voluptuousness, by revenge. "Christ's
grace heals the first, his doctrine the second, his example the last."
Pour Neel Advent *
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 319
when he healed the withered hand in the presence of
the Herodians and Pharisees, you may remark the dif-
ferent interests of the spectators in that act of our Lord
Jesus ; for on the one hand, .Moses and his religion seem-
ed interested therein two ways : 1. This miracle was
jdone on a day, in which Moses had commanded them to
do no manner of work. And, 2. This was done in a
synagogue consecrated to the mosaic worship, so that it
was in a manner insulting Moses in his own house. Far-
ther, the Herodiqns, who were particularly attached to
the person of Herod, either for political reasons, or for
some others unknown, were obliged to be offended ; for
this miracle had a tendency to prove Christ's Messiah-
ship, and thereby (as was commonly thought) his right
to the kingdom of Israel ; and consequently, this must
blacken the memory of Herod, who endeavoured to kill
him in his infancy. The Pharisees were no less interested;
for they considered Christ as their reprover and enemy,
and could not help being very much troubled, whenever
they saw Jesus Christ work a miracle. Observe the in-
terest of our Lord Jesus Christ ; his concern Avas to do
good, wherever he had an opportunity, and to glorify
God his Father, by confirming the word of his gospel by
acts of infinite power. The poor afflicted man had a
double interest in it, the healing of his body, and the im-
provement of his mind.
Thus this action of Jesus Christ, having divers relations,
becomes, as it were a point, whence many lines may be
drawn, one on this side, another on that ; and hence
arise the different remarks which may be made upon it.
320 AW ESSAY ON THE
XXVI.
DISTINGUISH DEFINE DIVIDE,
To speak properly, we distinguish when we consid-
er a thing in different views. As, for example, Faith is
considerable either objectively, or subjectively. In the
view of its object, faith is the work of Jesus Christ ; his
word and cross produce it ; for, take away the death of
Jesus Christ, and there is no more faith. His resurrec-
tion also is the cause of it ; " If Jesus Christ be not risen
our faith is vain, we are yet in our sins." But if you con-
sider faith in regard to its subject, or, to speak more prop-
erly, in regard to its efficient cause producing it in the
subject, it is the work of the Holy Ghost. So again (to
use the same example) faith may be considered with a
view to justification, or with a view to sanctification. In
the first view it is opposed to works : in the second it
is the principle and cause of good works ; it contains
them in summary and abridgement.
Thus man may be considered with a view to civil so-
ciety ; so he is obliged to such and such duties, and par-
takes of such and such advantages : or he may be con-
sidered with regard to churchrfellowship ; and so he is
subject to other laws, and enjoys other privileges. This
custom of distinguishing into different views is very com-
mon in preaching.
Definition.
This is sometimes used when an act of God is spok-
en of, as the pardon of our sins the justification of our
persons, &c. or when a virtue or a vice is in question ;
for then it may not be improper to define.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON- 321
Division*
This either regards different species of the genus, or
different parts of a whole ; and it may sometimes be us-
ed profitably. Thus, in speaking of God's providence in
general, you may consider the extent of that providence
to which are subject, 1. Natural causes. 2. Contingent
3 Independent. 4. Good and bad. 5* Great and small,
COMPARE THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE TEXT TOGETHER,
This is a very useful topic ; and it will often furnish
very beautiful considerations, if we know how to make
a proper use of it. For example, in this text of St. Paul
to the Romans, "There is therefore now no condemnation
tq them which are in Christ Jesus, who walk not after
the flesh, but after the spirit." You may make a very
edifying comparison between this last part, " who walk
not after the flesh, but after the spirit," with the first
part, " there is no condemnation ;" and you may remark,
that in the one, the apostle expresses what God does in
favour of the faithful, and in the other what the faithful
do for the glory of God. God absolves them; and they live
holily, and devote themselves to good works. God im-
poses holiness upon us in justification ; and justification is
the parent of holiness ; take away justification, and there
cannot possibly be any good works ; take away good
works, and there is no more justification.
You may also compare this last part with the condi-
tion in which the believer is here considered ; he is in
41
322 AN ESSAY ON THE
Christ Jesus ; and remark that these two things perfect-
ly agree together, because Jesus Christ is the true cause
of our justification ; and sanctification is the principal ef-
fect of our communion with Jesus Christ.
So again, in this beautiful passage in the second of
Ephesians ; " God who is rich in mercy, for his great
love wherewith he loved us, even when we were dead
in sins, hath quickened us together with Christ ; by grace
are ye saved." You may oppose and compare these two
subjects in the text, dead in sin, and rich in mercy, as being
two extremes, extreme misery, and extreme mercy, one
in us, and the other in God. The greatness of our crimes
manifest the riches of God's mercy : and the riches of
his mercy absorb the greatness of our crimes. Had our
sins been less, it must indeed have been mercy to par-
don our sins, but not riches of mercy. If God had been
only lightly inclined to mercy he might indeed have par-
doned smaller sins, but this would never have extended
to persons dead in their sins ; this belongs only to extra-
ordinary and abounding mercy.*
* The Editor has omitted in this place a long discourse upon 1 Thess. iv. 7.
which Mr. Claude had subjoined with a view to exemplify the discussion of a
text by way of observations. But it was not altogether calculated to answer the
end proposed, because it exemplified very few of the preceding topics, and those
without any attention to their order, or any intimation what topics he intended
to exemplify. Though, therefore, the discourse contained, as every production
of Mr* Claude's must, many striking and useful sentiments, the reader, who seeks
information respecting the Composition of a Sermon, has no occasion to regret
the omission of it ; more especially as the discourse was at least one third as long
as all the twenty-seven topics taken together. It should he remembered, how-
ever, that these topics are subject both to use and abuse. They are suggest-
ed in order to aid invention ; but they require judgment and discretion in the
use of them. SIMEO.V,
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 323
CHAP. VII.
OF TEXTS TO BE DISCUSSED IN A WAY OF CONTINUED
APPLICATION.
WE have said, there are two general ways of discus-
sing a text, that of explication, and that of observation.
These two ways of preaching we call textuary, because,
in effect, they keep to the text without digression, they
regard it as the subject matter of the whole discussion,
or, if you please, as the field, which they have to culti-
vate, or to reap : but, beside these, there is a third way,
which is, without explaining or making observations, the
making of a continual application of it, and the reducing
of it immediately to practice.
In this manner we must principally manage texts ex-
horting to holiness, and repentance, as this of Zephani-
ah, " examine yourselves diligently, O nation not desira-
ble ;" for, instead of explaining the terms or making
observations on the necessity of the exhortation the
prophet who spoke it the Jews to whom it is address-
ed the description of the nation not desirable the mer-
cy of God in calling these sinners to repentance, &c. the
whole may very usefully be turned into practice, and we
may enter upon that serious self-examination, which the
prophet commands.
The same may be said of 1 Cor. xi. 28* " Let a man
examine himself, and so let him eat of that bread, and
drink of that cup ;" for, laying aside all theological ob-
servations, you may actually enter upon self-examination.
This manner, well and wisely disposed, by choosing
proper occasions, will produce (as I have elsewhere said)
324 AN ESSAY ON THE
an excellent effect ; but always remember on this rule,
that in using this method, something searching and
erful must be said, or it would be better let alone,*
CHAP. VIII.
OF TEXTS TO BE DISCUSSED IN PROPOSITIONS.
To these three, a fourth may be added, which con-
sists in reducing the texts to a number of propositions,
two at least, and three or four at most, having mutual
dependence, and connexion. Thus, for example, Rom.
viii. 13. " If ye live after the flesh, ye shall die ; but if
ye through the spirit do mortify the deeds of the body,
ye shall live." You may, without pretending to explain
the terms, flesh spirit death life, or the phrases, live
after the flesh mortify the deeds of the body -(which is
the usual method) you may reduce the whole to two
propositions ; the one, that the damnation of sinners is
inevitable and the other, that a good and holy life is
both a principal end of the gospel, and an inseparable
character of Christianity. When this method is taken,
there is much more liberty than in the former, and a more
extensive field opens. In the former methods you are
restrained to your text, and you can only explain and ap-
ply that ; you can make no other observations, than such
as precisely belong to it ; but here your subject is the
matter contained in your propositions, and you may treat
of them thoroughly, and extend them as far as you please,
provided you do not violate the general rules of a ser-
mon. Here you must propose not to treat of the text.
? An example of a long sermon is here omitted- ^
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 325
but of those subjects, which you have chosen from sever-
al contained in the text. The way of explication is most
proper to give the meaning of Scripture ; and this of
systematical divinity. The way of application rather re-
gards practice than theory : but this, which we call the
way of propositions, or points, is more proper to produce
an acquaintance with systematical divinity, and it will
equally serve theory and practice.*
* For example, Rom. viii. 13. " If ye live after the flesh, ye shall die ; but
if through the Spirit, &c." After explaining the terms, the whole discourse
may be reduced to two propositions ;
I. The damnation of the wicked is inevitable.
It is deplorable to consider the blindness in which the greatest part of the
people in the world live, who seldom think of the punishments of hell, or the con-
sequences of death. From this blindness comes their insensibility to religion,
and their extreme attachment to the vanities of this present evil world.
Yet, however great this blindness is, it is in a measure voluntary, proceeding
more from the malice of the heart, than the darkness of the understanding ; for
the passions avoid those objects, which are disagreeable to them, and perpetual-
ly substitute others to employ the mind. 'Hence, it is of the last importance to
meditate on this matter, on which depends our eternal interest in a future world.
1. Man is a creature subject to a law ; and even the light of his conscience
discovers an essential difference between vice and virtue, good actions and bad.
But a law is no law, if it do not suppose a judgment ; and judgment is no judg-
ment, if it do not suppose punishment.
And by the consent of all mankind, in the thicliest darkness of paganism,
when God suffered all nations to walk in their own ways, even then, it was al-
ways acknowledged that there were rewards to the virtuous, and punishments to
the impious.
But this is capable of further proof by the principles of all religions. There
never was, nor can there ever be any, which is not founded on this principle,
that God is our sovereign Judge, who holds in his hands our life and death.
Finally, we -observe, that revealed religion has carefully placed this truth in
full evidence ; showing not only the truth- of the punishment of sinners, but also
the degrees of it. A punishment after death and judgment which involves both
body and soul which has truly the essence of pain, and not annihilation a
punishment proportional in greatness as well as in duration.
2. Having thus established the truth of our proposition, we may pass on to
the vain subterfuges, which sinners use on the subject. It is a distressing sub-
ject, therefore they do not like to think about it ; but what folly is there in this
conduct. They resemble prisoners already in irons, and doomed to punishmentj
who stifle the sense of the misery by plunging into debauchery.
326 AN ESSAY ON THE
It must not be thought, that these four ways of dis-
cussing texts are so heterogeneous, that they can never
When worldly men cannot entirely avoid the thought of damnation, they ven-
ture to take refuge in false notions. ' God, say they, is a gracious judge, he has
the compassion of a father.* What a marvellous abuse is this of mercy 1 But
will mercy allow the impunity of that sinner, who persists in sin, and would
make compassion itself an accomplice in his crimes ?
The wicked seldom fail to abuse the evangelical doctrine of the death of Christ
to hide in a multitude like themselves to consider damnation as a very dis-
tant tiling to extenuate their sins, and to hide the enormity and number of them.
But, to speak plainly, all these are only vain pretences, the falsehood of which
even the wicked acknowledge ; the only reason why they avoid conversion is,
that ardent love, that obstinate attachment, which they have to vice. This is
the true cause ; and all the rest, if they would speak honestly, are only vain pre-
tences.
Now, I ask, is not this love to sin the greatest folly in the world ? while on
the one band, it renders us incapable of enjoying ourselves ; and, on the other
hand, draws upon us the condemnation of God, and conducts us a great pace to-
wards those eternal torments, which he has prepared for the wicked.
II. The practice of good works, and an holy and religious life, is the princi-
pal end which the gospel proposes, and the principal character of the true Chris-
tian.
This is manifest from passages of scripture innumerable. " The grace of
God that bringetb salvation," &c. &c.
Indeed, by a general view of the end for which Christ came into the world,
you will see he came to destroy the works of the devil. The works of the devil
are principally two, sin and punishment let us not imagine that Jesus Christ
came into the world to take away the punishment only, and to. leave sin trium-
phant.
I will even venture to say, he came to destroy sin rather than sorrow. Suf-
fering concerns only the creature ; but sin concerns the Creator as well as the
creature } it dishonours the one and distresses the other.
Is it likely, think ye, that Jesua Christ would have quitted his mansion of
glory, and descended to this earth, to acquire an impunity for criminals, leaving
them immersed in sensuality and sin ? Is it likely that he can hold communion
with people in rebellion and profaneness ?
From all which it clearly follows, that an unsanctined man has not the spirit
of Christ, is not in communion with him, does not belong to his mystical body,
is not a true believer ; in a word, is not a true Christian. Holiness is an insepa-
rable companion, and a necessary effect of the gospel.
But, if holiness be a necessary consequence of the gospel, it is no less true
that the gospel is an inexhaustible source of motives to holiness. I pass over
its precepts, and rules of conduct all its mysteries point at this all its doc-
trines are so many bonds, to bind our hearts to the obedience of faith.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON, 327
be mixed together ; on the contrary, there are a great
many texts, in which it will be necessary to make use of
two, or three, and sometimes eyen of all the four ways.
When a text is explained, it will be very often needful
to make some observations also, and the matter will re-
quire as long an application. Sometimes, to explain a
text well, the matter must be reduced into many propo-
sitions, as we have observed on these words, "It is God
that worketh in you to will and to do of his good pleas-
ure." In like manner, when the method of observation
is used, it very often happens that some part of the text
needs explaining, and so of the rest. These four ways
must be distinguished for two reasons. I. Because they
they are very different from one another ; to explain, to
make observations, to apply, and to reduce to proposi-
To which we may add, the gospel consecrates to holy uses, even what the
light of nature teacheth us, as, that God is our Creator, and made us by his
power ; and our Preserver, who supports us by a perpetual influence, and pre-
vents our falling back into non-entity; that it is bis providence which governs
the whole universe, and particularly watches over us.
O powerful motives to love and obedience ! Shall it be said that God pre-
serves ungrateful and rebellious creatures, who do nothing but affront him ? Shall
it be said his sun cheers us in the same manner, as it does serpents and vipers ?
and that it influences us as it does envenomed dragons?
But all these motives, however great and powerful, are nothing in compari-
son of those which the gospel takes from its own source ; and they are such as
must affect every soul, which is not, I do not say hard and insensible, but entire-
ly dead in sin, or possessed by the devil. For, in one word, that God, after all
our rebellions, and all our crimes, should yet be reconciled to us ; that he should
give his Son, that he should give him to be flesh and blood like us, that he should
give him to die for us I is not this love and mercy worthy of eternal praise? And
what horrible ingratitude must it be, if after all this we should be yet capable
of wilfully sinning 1 against a God so good, and of counting the blood of such a cov~
enant an unholy thing.
Hence it appears, that Christianity is dishonoured, when the outward profes-
sion of it is attended with a bad life how they deceive themselves, who, with-
out sanctification and good works, imagine themselves Christians and that it is
the vainest of all hopes to imagine they may be saved by such a bare profession.
Many will come to Jesus Christ in the last day, saying " Lord, Lord," &c.
CJ.ATTDE.
328 A3S ESSAY ON THE
tions, are four very different ways of treating texts. A
composer, then, must not confound them together ; but
he must observe the difference well, that he may use
them'*properly.- 2. Because it is customary to give the
discussion of a text the name of the prevailing manner of
handling it. We call that the way of explication, in
which there is more explication than observation. We
not only call that the way of observation, which has only
observations, but that in which there is more observa-
tion than explication, or application ; and so of the rest,
CHAP. IX, .
OP THE EXORDIUM.
THE exordium is that part, in which the minds of the
hearers are prepared, and a natural and easy way open-
ed to the discussion.
But, first, a question presents itself (on which opin-
ions are much divided,) whether exordiums be necessa-
ry ? or even whether they be not in all cases quite useless,
and in some hurtful ? Whether it would not be better en-
tirely to omit them, to begin immediately with the connex-
ion of the text with the preceding verses, pass to the di-
vision, and so enter on the discussion ? There are many of
this opinion, and their reasons are, 1. That there appears
too much artifice in an exordium, which is more likely to
dissipate, than to conciliate, the attention of your hear-
ers. " It is evident (say they) to the auditors, that you
design to come insensibly, and by a kind of artful ma-
noeuvre, to your matter, and to lead your hearers almost
imperceptibly to it ; but this seems a finesse altogether
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 329
unworthy of the gospel, and contrary to that sincerity,
ingenuousness, gravity, and simplicity, which should
reign in the pulpit. Indeed, when a wise hearer per-
ceives you design to deceive him, he conceives a strong
prejudice against you, and that prejudice will certainly
be hurtful in the following part of the discourse."
They add, in the second place, that " exordiums are
extremely difficult to compose, and justly styled the crosses
of preachers. Should some small advantage be gained
by exordiums, it would not be of consequence enough to
induce us to compose them. In so doing we should waste
a part of our time and strength, which might be much
more usefully employed."
They say thirdly, that " the principal end proposed
in an exordium is either to conciliate the hearer's affec-
tion, or to excite his attention, or to prepare the way
to the matters to be treated of: but all these are to be
supposed. As to their affection, pastors, who preach to
their own flocks, ought not to doubt that. We speak to
Christians, to persons, who consider us as the ministers of
Jesus Christ, whom, consequently, they respect and love*
As to attention, it ought also to be supposed : not only
because pulpit-subjects are divine and salutary to men,
but also because such only come to public worship as
desire to hear the word of God attentively : and, indeed,
if the auditors have not that disposition of themselves,
an exordium cannot give it them. Such a disposition is
an effect of a man's faith, and piety, and it is not to be
thought, that an exordium of eight or ten periods can
convert the worldly and profane, or give faith and piety
to those, who have them not. As to what regards the
introducing of the matter to be treated of, the bare read-
ing of the text sufficiently does that ; for, according to
42
330 AN ESSAY ON THE
the common way of preaching, the text contains the sub-
ject to be discussed."
Finally, they add, " delivering' an exordium is only
mispending time, uselessly dissipating a part of the hear-
ers' attention, so that afterward, they frequently sleep
very quietly when you enter on the discussion. Would
it not be better, then, immediately to engage them in
the matter, so that their attachment may afterward
serve to maintain their attention, according to the natur-
al inclination, which all men have to finish what they
have once begun?"
But none of these reasons are weighty enough to
persuade us to reject exordiums, or to be careless about
them. As to the first, The art which appears in an ex-
ordium, so far from being odious in itself, and seeming-
unnatural to the hearers, is, on the contrary, altogether
natural. It is disagreeable to enter abruptly into theo-
logical matters without any preparation. It would not
be necessary, were our minds all exercised about divine
things ; but as, alas ! we are in general too little versed
in such exercises, it is good to be conducted to them
without violence, and to have emotions excited in us in
a soft, and insensible manner. It is not finesse, and de-
ceit, since in doing it we only accommodate ourselves to
the weakness of man's mind, and indeed, it is what he
himself desires. Moreover, it is to be observed, that
hearers are now so habituated to an exordium, that if
they heard a preacher enter abruptly into his matter,
they would be extremely disgusted, and would imagine,
the man was aiming to do with them what the angel did
with Habakkuk, when he took him by the hair of his
head, and transported him in an instant from Judea to
Babylon. Some time then ought to be employed gently
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 331
to lead the mind of the hearer to the subjects, of which
you are going to treat. You are not to suppose that he
already understands them, nor that he is thinking on
what you have been meditating, nor that he can apply
it instantly without preparation.
The second reason may have some weight with
weak and lazy preachers ; but it has none with wise and
diligent students ; and, after all, exordiums are not so
difficult, as to be impracticable : a little pains taking is
sufficient, as we every day experience.
The third is not more considerable. I grant, preachers
ought to suppose the love and affection of their hearers ;
yet it does'not follow, that they ought not to excite it, when
they preach to them. Perhaps their affection is not al-
ways in exercise : it may be sometimes suspended, and
even opposed by contrary sentiments ; by coolness and
indifference, by hatred or envy, arising from the defects
of the pastor (for, however able, he is not perfect,) or
from the depravity of the hearers. The same may be
said of attention, although they ought to have it entire-
ly for the divine truths, which the preacher speaks ;
yet, it is certain, they have it not ; and all that a preach-
er can desire is, that his hearers have a general disposi-
tion to hear the gospel. The preacher must endeav-
our to give them a peculiar attention to such matters as
he has to discuss. As to the rest, it must not be thought,
that the bare reading of the text, or the connexion, or
the division only can produce that effect ; a greater
compass must be taken, to move the human mind, and
apply the subject. And this also may be said of pre-
paration, for which an exordium is principally designed.
The reading of the text may do something ; connexion
332 AN ESSAY ON THE
and division may contribute more ; but all this, without
an exordium, will be useless.
Nor is it difficult to answer the foufth reason ; for*
beside the advantages of an exordium, which are great
enough to prevent our calling it lost time, its parts are
ordinarily so short, that they cannot justly be accused of
dissipating or fatiguing the hearer's minds, To which I
add, that the exordium itself, if well chosen will always
contain agreeable and instructive matter, so that, con-
sidered in itself, something good is always to be learned
from it.
We cannot approve, then, of the custom of the Eng->
lish preachers, who enter immediately into the literal
explication of the text, and make it serve for an exordi*
urn ; after which they divide their discourses into sev-?
eral parts, which they discuss as they go on. Surely
the hearer is not suddenly able to comprehend their ex-
plications, having yet neither emotions nor preparation.
Methinks, it would be much better gently to stir them
up, and move them by something, which gives no pain,
than to load them all on a sudden with an explication,
which they can neither clearly comprehend, nor perhaps
distinctly hear.
Least of all do we approve of the custom of some of
our own preachers, who, intending to explain the text,
or to make some reflections throughout the whole ser-
mon, enter immediately into the matter, without any ex*
ordiums at all. I .am persuaded, they are induced to do
thus only for the sake of avoiding the difficulty of com-
posing an exordium, that is, in one word, only for the
sake of indulging their idleness and negligence.
Taking it for granted, then, that an exordium must
be used, it may be asked, what are the principal bene-
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 333
fits we expect to receive from them ? and with what
general views ought they to be composed ? In answer,
we say, the principal design of an exordium is to attract
or excite the affections of the audience ; to stir up their
attention; and to prepare them for the particular mat-
ters, of which we are about to treat.*
The two first of these must only be proposed indi-
rectly. A preacher would render himself ridiculous, if
in ordinary discourses, and without cases of extreme
necessity, -he should labour by this means to acquire the
esteem and affection of his congregation. This method
would be more likely to make them rather despise than
esteem him.
You must not, then, compliment the people, nor
praise yourself, nor indeed speak of yourself in any man-
ner of way. These are affectations, which never suc-
ceed ; and yet some able preachers slip into this weak-
ness, especially when they preach to strange congrega-
tions, and, above all, when they address assemblies of
the rich, the learned, or the noble.
Then they never fail to interlard their exordiums
with some common place saws ; either the pleasure it
gives them to be called to that pulpit ; or an affectation
of selcontempt ; a confession of their great weakness ,
or something of this kind. To speak my opinion freely,
I think these are pedantic airs, which have a very bad
effect. Sensible auditors do not like to hear such fan-
* Introductions are intended to excite affection and attention, and to prepare
the auditor for the subject. " Causa principii nulla alia est, qnam ut auditorem,
quo sit nobis in caeteris partibua accommodation, prseparemus. Id fieri tribus
maxime rebus, inter actores plurimos constat, si benevolum, allentum, doeilem
fecerimus ; non quia ista per totam actionem non sint cuatodienda, sed quia in
initiis maxime necessaria, per qua? in animum judicis, ut procedere ultra possi-
mufl, admittimur." Quint. Ins\. lib. iv. cap. i,
334 ' AN ESSAY ON THE
tastical pretences, which are both contrary to the grav-
ity of the pulpit, and to the decency of a modest man.
How then, you will ask, must the affections of the
hearers he attracted ? I answer, indirectly, hy an exor-
dium well chosen, and well spoken; and this is the sur-
est way of succeeding.
In regard to attention, it is certain it ought to be
awakened, and fixed in the same manner, that is, by
something agreeable, and worthy of being heard, a com-
position of piety and good sense. I do not disapprove
of asking sometimes for attention, either on account of
the importance of the matter, the solemnity of the day,
the state of the church, or, in short,, of any other par-
ticular occasion ; but it must not be done often : for
then it would never be minded ; and, when it is done,
the fewer words the better.*
The principal use of an exordium is to prepare the
hearer's mind for the particular matters you have to
treat of. and insensibly to conduct him to it. If this end
be not obtained, the exordium cannot but be imperti-
nent ; and, on the contrary, if this end be answered, the
exordium cannot be improper.
When I say, the hearer's mind must be prepared
for, and conducted to the matter, I mean to say, these
are two different things. You prepare the hearer for
the matter, when you stir up in him such dispositions as
he ought to have, to hear well, and to profit much.
* The fathers, about the time of Cnrysostom, made use of what some have
called Prteexordia, and they thought they derived the custom from the apostles.
Paul begins his epistles with, " Grace and peace be with you from God the Fa-
ther, and our Lord Jesus Christ." In imitation of this, when a father ascended
the pulpit, he used to pause a moment, and then say, Peace be with you all ! or,
The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all ! or something of this kind.
In return the people answered, And with thy spirit ! and then he entered on his
sermon. ROBIWSOW,
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 335
You insensibly conduct your hearer to the matter, when,
by the natural connexion of the subjects of which you
speak, you lead him from one thing to another, and en-
able him to enter into the doctrine of your sermon.
Let us advert a moment to each. The preparation
must be determined by the subject, of which you are
going to speak; for if it be a sad and afflicting subject,
in which you aim to excite the compassion, the grief,
and the tears of your audience, you must begin the ex-
ordium by imparting such a disposition.
If you have to treat of a profound and difficult mys-
tery, aim to diffuse elevation and admiration among the
hearers. If some terrible example of God's justice be
the subject, endeavour to stir up fear. If some enor-
mous crime, prepare the mind for horror by a medita-
tion on the enormity of human corruption. If you have
to treat of repentance, and in an extraordinary manner
to interest your hearers in it, you must begin to dispose
them to it by general ideas of God's wrath, which we
have deserved ; of the little fruit we have borne to his
glory ; or something of a like nature. If, on the contra-
ry, the matter, you have to treat of, be common and
tranquil, aim in your exordium to place the mind in its
natural state, and only endeavour to excite honest and
Christian tempers, which we all ought always to have.
In a word the exordium must always participate the
spirit of the subject, that you mean to discuss, in order
to dispose your hearers for it. Not to use in this man-
ner, is to loose all the benefit of an exordium ; and to
use it to an opposite purpose, would be to renounce com-
mon sense, and to act like an idiot.
The second use of an introduction is to conduct the
hearer gradually to the subject, of which you arc about
336 AN ESSAY ON THE
to treat. This (as I have said) depends on the eonnex*
ion between the subjects of the exordium with them-
selves, and with the matter of the discussion. I say first
with themselves ; for they must, as it were, hold each
other by the hand, and have a mutual dependence and
subordination, otherwise the auditor will be surprised to
find himself suddenly transported from one topic to anoth-
er. I say also with the discussion, for the exordium is
principally intended to introduce that.
The first quality of an exordium is brevity. This, how-
ever, has a proper measure ; for as it ought not to be
excessively long, so neither should it be too short ; the
middle way is best. The longest exordium may have
ten or twelve periods, and the shortest six or seven, pro-
vided the periods be not too long. The reason is, that,
on the one hand, proper time may be given the hearer
to prepare himself to hear you with attention, and to fol-
low you in the discussion of the matter ; and, on the
other, that in giving time sufficient for that, you may
prevent his wandering out of the subject, wearying him-
self, and becoming impatient. If the exordium were too
short, it would oblige the hearer to enter too soon into
the matter without preparation enough ; and excessive
length would weary him ; for it is with an auditor, as
with a man who visits a palace, he does not like to stay
too long in the court, or first avenues, he would only view
them transiently without stopping, and proceed as soon
as possible to gratify his principal curiosity.
2. An exordium must be clear, and consequently disen-
gaged from all sorts of abstruse and metaphysical thoughts.
It should be expressed in natural and popular terms, and
not overcharged with matter. Indeed, as the auditors
are neither enlivened nor moved, yet you must not ex-
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 337
pect of them at first a great degree of penetration and el-
evation, nor even a great attempt towards these, though
they may be capable of them when they are animated.
You must therefore, in an exordium, avoid all that can
give pain to the mind, such as physical questions, long
trains of reasoning, and such like. However, do not im-
agine, that, under pretence of great clearness, an exordi-
um must have only theological matter, or consist rather
of words than things. This would be falling into the
other extreme. An exordium, then, must contain matter
capable of nourishing and satisfying the mind ; to do
which, it must be clear, easy to comprehend, and express-
ed in a very natural manner.
3. An exordium must be cool and grave.* Conse-
quently no grand figures may be admitted, as apostrophes,
violent exclamations, reiterated interrogations, nor, in a
word, any thing that tends to give vehement emotions
to the hearers : for, as the discourse must be accommo-
dated to the state of the hearer, he in the beginning be-
ing cool, and free from agitations, the speaker ought to
be so too. No wise man will approve exordiums full of
enthusiasms, and poetical raptures, full of impetuous or
angry emotions, or of bold interrogations, or surprising
paradoxes to excite admiration. You must in the begin-
ning speak gently, remembering that your auditors are
neither yet in heaven, nor in the air, nor at all elevated
* An exordium must be cool. Mr. Claude's rule is undoubtedly good in gen-
eral, and bis reason weighty.
This, however, is a rule sometimes dispensed with. Cicero begins an ora-
tion thus ; " Quousque tandem abutere, Catalina, patientia nostra ?. Quamdiu,
etiam furor iste tuus nos illudet ? Quern ad finem sese effrenata jactabit auda-
cia ?" &c. Perhaps an exordium somewhat more animated than usual may be
proper on such occasions, as the first and twelfth of the skeletons, published by
the Editor.
43
338 AN ESSAY ON THE
in their way thither, but upon earth, and in a place of
worship.
4. An exordium, however, ought not to be so cool
and grave, as not to be at the same time engaging and
agreeable. There are three principal ends, which a
preacher should propose, namely, to instruct, to please,
and to affect ; but, of these three, that which should
reign in an exordium is, to please. I own you should
also aim to instruct and affect ; but less to instruct than
to please, and less still to affect than to instruct. Indeed,
if you can judiciously and properly introduce any thing
tender into an exordium (especially on extraordinary oc-
casions) you may to good purpose ; but, be that as it
may, the agreeable should reign in this part. You easi-
ly see by this that you must banish from the exordium,
all ill-natured censures, terrible threatenings, bitter re-
proaches, and, in general, all that savours of anger, con-
tempt, hatred, or indifference, and in short, every thing
that has the air of quarrelling with the hearers. Their
attention must not only be excited (you may sufficiently
do so by censures and reproaches) but you must softly
insinuate yourself into their esteem, so that they may
not only not oppose what you say, but be well satisfied
you are an honest and well-meaning man.t
5. The whole of the exordium must be naturally con-
nected with all the matter of the text. I say first the whole
t Satisfy your hearers thai you are a well-meaning man. Hence Quintilian
so much insists on his orator's being a good man. The whole first chapter of his
twelfth book is spent in proving the necessity of this; and, if this be so needful
at the bar, how much more so is it in the pulpit ! His conclusion is enough to
make a Christian minister blush. " Men had better be born dumb, and even des-
titute of reason, than pervert those gifts of providence to pernicious purposes. Mu-
tos enim nasci, et egere omni ratione satius fuisset, quam providentias munera IB
mutuam perniciera convertere." Qm'nf. I, sii. c. i.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 339
of the exordium ; for great care must be taken to put
nothing there foreign to your subject : therefore the best
exordiums are those, which are composed of two pro-
positions, the first of which is naturally and immediately
connected with the second, and the second naturally and
immediately with the text. Each of these propositions
may be either proved, or amplified; but the last must
always conduct you with ease to the subject in question,
nor must the first be very distant. According to this
maxim, all exordiums must be condemned, which, instead
of leading you into the text, make you, as it were, tum-
ble from a precipice into it, which is intolerable. Those
also are to be condemned, which conduct to the text by
many long circuits, that is, by many propositions chained
together, which is certainly vicious, and can only fatigue
the hearer. I add, in the second place, the exordium
must be connected with the whole matter of the text. It
ought not merely to relate to one of its parts, (or to one
view only, if you intend to consider it in different views)
but to all. One of the principal uses of an exordium is
to prepare the mind of the hearer for the matter to be
discussed. If, therefore, the exordium refer only to one
of its parts ; or to one view only, it will prepare the
mind of the hearer for that one part, for that one view
only, and not for the rest.
6. An exordium must be simple. We would not en-
tirely banish figures : on the contrary, we would always
employ such as may render the discourse pleasant and
agreeable : but pompous and magnificent expressions
must be avoided, as far as the things spoken will admit,
Do not use a style too elevated, bordering on bombast ;
nor periods too harmonious ; nor overstrained allegories ;
nor even metaphors too common or too bold ; for indeed
340 AN ESSAY ON THE
the hearer's mind, yet cool and in its natural state, can
bear nothing of this kind.
7. An exordium must not be common. As this is a
rule much abused, it will be needful to explain it. By a
common exordium, I do not mean an exordium, which
will suit many texts ; for if the texts are parallel, and
the subject be managed with the same views, and in the
same circumstance s, r jadiat occasion is there to compose
different exordiums r| By a common exordium, I mean, in
the first place, one taken from trivial things, and which
have been said over and over again ; these the people
already know, and your labour will infallibly be thrown
away. Such are exordiums taken from comparisons of
the sun of kings of conquerors of the ancient Ro-
mans, &c. or from some histories of the Old Testa-
ment, which have been often repeated or of some well-
known types, as the Israelites' passage through the Red
Sea and many more of the same kind. In the second
place, I mean, by a common or general exordium, one,
which may be alike applied to two texts of different '
matter, or to two contrary interpretations of the same
text. It is in this sense that common exordiums are vic-
ious and distasteful.
8. Even in metaphorical or figurative texts, it Is quite
puerile to make an exordium join the text by a meta-
phor ; for, whatever ingenuity there may seem to be in
it, it is certain, there is no taste, no judgment discovered
in the practice ; and, however it may pass in college
declamations, it would appear too trifling in the pulpit.
The exordium, then, must be connected with the text
by the matter, itself ; that is, not by the figure, but by
the subject intended to be conveyed by the figure. I
would not, however, forbid the joining of the exordium
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 341
to the text sometimes by the figure, provided it be done
in a chaste and prudent manner.
Let us give one example. " He that eateth my flesh
and drinketh my blood, hath eternal life." John vi. 54.
An exordium to a sermon from this text may be taken
from the idea, which holy scripture teaches us to form
of our conversion, as if it were a NEW birth, which begins
a new life ; that for this purpose, it speaks of a new
man, a new heaven, which illuminates, and a new earth,
which supports him ; that, attributing to this new man
the same senses, which nature has formed in us, as sight,
hearing, feeling, smelling, tasting, it attributes also to
him objects proportioned to each of these mystical sen-
ses, and ascribes to them effects like those, which our
senses produce by their natural operations. It tells us ;
that our eyes contemplate the celestial light, which illu-
minates and guides us in the ways of righteousness ; that
our ears hear the voice of God, who calls us, and who
by these means makes us obey our vocation. It tells us
that the gospel is a savour of life, which communicates
salvation to us. And, finally, it attributes to us a mouth
to eat the flesh, and drink the blood of the Son of God.
in order to nourish us to life eternal. It is this last ex-
pression, which Jesus Christ has made use of in the
sixth of John, and which says in my text, " he that eat-
eth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, hath eternal life."
This exordium joins itself to the text by the figure
made use of in the text, but in such a manner as not to
be chargeable with affectation, or witticism ; for it is by
a serious reflection on the scripture use of the figure, ac-
knowledging it to be a figure, and -preparing the hearer
io attend to the explication.
To these rules I subjoin a word or two on the vices
342 AN ESSAY ON THE
of exordiums. 1. There are some preachers, who im-
agine it a fine thing to take exordiums from the persons
of their hearers, or the. circumstances of times, places,
general affairs, or news of the world : but I believe this
is altogether a vicious method, and should never be used
but on extraordinary occasions. First, there is too much
affectation in it. Is it not a vain parade, to begin a dis-
course with things which have no relation to the mat-
ter ? It is certainly contrary to the chastity and mod-
esty of a Christian pulpit. Secondly, exordiums of this
sort are usually pulled in by head and shoulders. How
should it be otherwise, when the articles, of which they
are composed, have, if any, only a very distant relation
to the text ? By such means you defeat the principal
design of an exordium, which is to prepare the hearers'
minds, and to conduct them insensibly to the subject.
And, finally it is very difficult in such exordiums to avoid
saying impertinences ; for what, in a public discourse,
can be more indelicate, than to speak of yourself, or
hearers, or times, or news ? In my opinion such exordi-
ums ought to be entirely rejected.
2. You must also, for the most part, reject exordi-
ums taken from profane history, or what they call the
apothegms of illustrious men. This method savours too
much of the college, and is by no means in the taste of
pious, well bred men. Alexander, Cassar, Pompey, all
the great names of antiquity have no business to ascend
the pulpit ; and if they are not suffered now-a-days,
either in orations in the senate, or in pleas of the bar,
much less ought they to be allowed in Christian sermons.
It may not be amiss, if they appear now and then in the
discussion, or in the application ; but even there we
ought to see them but seldom, not oftener than once a
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 343
year at most : but to introduce them at the beginning
of a sermon is intolerable. I say much the same of
citations from profane authors ; they must be forborne,
unless it be something so particular, so agreeable, and
so apt to the text, as to carry its own recommendation
along with it.
In general the best exordiums are taken from theol-
ogy ; for, as, on the one hand, they have always more
relation to the matter of the text, so, on the other, they
much better prepare the hearers' minds, being more
grave, and free from the puerile pedantries of the col-
lege.
In order to compose an exordium, after you have
well considered the senses of the text, and observed what
are the principal matters, which ought to enter into the
discussion, and after you have made the division, en-
deavour to reduce the whole to one common idea, and
then choose some other idea naturally connected with
that common idea, either immediately, or by means of
another. If it be immediately connected with the sub-
ject, endeavour to reduce it to one proposition, which
may be cleared and proved as you go on ; or if it have
parts, which require separate explications and proofs, it
must be managed so as to include them ; and finally, by
the natural connexion of that proposition with the dis-
cussion, enter into -the text. If the proposition be con-
nected with the text only remotely, then establish the
first, pass on to the second, and so proceed from the
second to the text. ^
Exordiums may be taken from almost all the same
topics as observations, that is, from genus, species, contra-
ries^ fyc. For there are but few good exordiums, which
might not go into the discussion, under the title of a;en-
344 AN ESSAY ON THE
eral observation. Of such observations, that must be
chosen for an exordium, which is least essential, or least
necessary to the discussion, and which, besides, is clear,
agreeable, and entertaining. A comparison may sometimes
be employed in an exordium, but not often ; nor must
trivial comparisons be used, which all the world know,
or which are taken from any thing mean ; nor must they
be embarrassing, taken from things unknown to the peo-
ple, as those are, which are borrowed from mechanics,
astronomy, &c. of which the people know nothing at all.
Bible-history may be used, but sparingly ; and the
application must be always just, agreeable, and, in some
sort, new and remarkable.
Types may also be employed ; but with the same
precautions, always consulting good sense and taste.
The best method is to compose several exordiums
for the same text, by turning your imagination divers
ways, by taking it in all its different relations ; for by
such means you may choose the most proper. But af-
ter all these general precepts, which indeed ought to be
known, and by which exordiums must be regulated, it is
certain, the invention and composition of an exordium can
only become easy by practice. A young preacher ought
not to complain of trouble, nor to be any way negligent
in the matter ; for he may be sure of succeeding by at-
tention and application.
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 345
CHAP. X.
OF THE CONCLUSION.*
THE Conclusion ought to be lively and animating,
full of great and beautiful figures, aiming to move chris-
tian affections, as the love of God, hope, zeal, repent-
ance, self-condemnation, a desire of self-correction, con-
solation, admiration of eternal benefits, hope of felic-
ity, courage arid constancy in afflictions, steadiness in
temptations, gratitude to God. recourse to him by prayer,
and other such dispositions.t
* Conclusion. This in a sermon answers to what in an oration is called the
peroration. " It recapitulates, or sums up the strongest and chief arguments, and,
by moving the passions, endeavours to persuade the hearers to yield to the force
of them." Jltisl. Rhtt.
The fire of the preacher should blaze here ; he should collect the ideas of his
whole sermon into this part, as rays are collected in the focus of a burning-glass
and inflame the hearts of his auditors.
t Bishop Burnet.says, " A sermon, the conclusion whereof makes the audi-
tory look pleased, and sets them all talking with one another, was certainly ei-
ther not rightly spoken, or not rightly heard ; it has been fine, and has probably
delighted the congregation rather than edified it ; but that sermon that makes
every one go away silent, and grave, and hastening to be alone to meditate, and
pray the matter over in secret, has had a true effect." Past, care, chap. ix.
Let the peroration, or conclusion, be short ; let it be bold and lively ; and
let some one or more striking ideas, not mentioned before in the discussion, be
reserved for this part, and let it be applied with vigour. Buchollzer used to say,
A good preacher was known by his conclusion. He frequently concluded his dis-
course with some such sentence as the following. Here, my brethren, I stop, I
leave the Holy Spirit to preach to you. Now, Christians, I have done my part.
May the Lord condescend to do his in your hearts ! I have planted and watered.
May God give ihe increase ! I have been preaching to you, and setting before
you the gospel of Salvation. May the Lord God apply it to your hearts, for his
glory, and for your eternal felicity ! May the Lord set home to your hearts what
I have been preaching ! For my part, I am only his messenger to you. He is
the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls. KECKERMANNI Rhet. Eccl.
The publisher of Massillon'x sermons describes, in the preface, the bishop's
44
346 AN ESSAY ON THE
There are three sorts of dispositions, or emotions ;
the violent, the tender, and the elevated. The violent
are, for example, indignation, fear, zeal, courage, firm-
ness against temptations, repentance, self-loathing, &c.
The tender emotions are joy, consolation, gratitude ;
tender subjects are pardon, pitj, prayer, &c.* The el-
method of preaching, by saying, that "What formed the distinct character of fa-
ther Massillori's eloquence, was, that all his strokes aimed directly at the Aear/,
so that what was simply reason and proof in others, was feeling in his mouth.
Hence the remarkable effects of his instructions ; nobody after hearing him stop-
ped to praise or criticise his sermon. Each auditor retired in a pensive silence, with
a thoughtful air, downcast eyes, and composed countenance, carrying away the ar-
row fastened in his heart. When Massillon had preached his first advent at Ver-
sailles, Lewis XIV. said these remarkable words to him : * Father, I have heard
many fine orators in my chapel, and have been very much pleased with them ; but as
for you, always when I have heard you, I have been very much displeased with
myself. 1 Serm. de Massill. pet. car. pref.
* Tender conclusion. Example of a tender conclusion, from a sermon of Bish-
op Massillon to his clergy. And indeed, my brethren, can a pastor live either
without prayer, or can he pray but seldom ; or can he pray without fervour and
zeal, or can he confine all his prayers to a cold, inattentive, and hasty rehearsal
of his breviary, while he passes his life among his parishoners, and sees the great-
est part- of them lying in sin, and perishing every day before his eyes? When
the high priest Aaron saw a part of his people smitten by the hand of God, and
expiring before him, he ran between the dead and the living he lifted his hands
to heaven he wept for the misery of such as fell before his eyes he cried he
wrestled and his prayer was heard, the plague was stopped, and the sword of
God's anger retired. A good pastor never prays for his people in vain. " And
Aaron stood between the dead and the living, and the plague was stayed."
This, my brpthren, is the image of a good pastor. Among his people (as I
may say) he walks between the dead and the Jiving. He sees by his side some
of his flock dead, and others ready to expire, having only some flattering signs
of life. Pie sees the invisible sword of God's wrath hang over these people; he
sees reigning crimes and hastening death. All this he beholds, and it is a spec-
tacle, which he has every day before his eyes.- If he is not affected with this, he
is not a pfcstor, he is a mercenary wretch, who sees in cold blood the destruction
of his dock. He is either a minister fallen from the grace of the priesthood, or
one who has never received it. But if this affects him, ah ! what must the first
motion of his grief and zeal be ? He will address himself to God, who wounds
and heals ; he will open to him secret tears of grief and love to his people ; be
remind an angry God of his ancient mercies ; he will move his paternal
COMPOSITION OP A SERMON. 347
evated are admiration of the majesty of God, the ways
of providence, the glory of Paradise, the expectation of
benefits &c.
There are some Christian passions which may be ex-
cited either by a tender, or violent method. Repen-
tance is of this kind ; for which extremely tender mo-
tives may be employed, as the love, and bounty of God,
which we have so unworthily treated. Violent motives
may also be used, as censure, an enumeration and de-
scription of the enormity of the sins reigning among us,
the horror of our ingratitude, the fear of God's judgments,
the justice of his scourges, and chastisements, &c.
In like manner, firmness against temptations may be
discussed ; for tender motives may be used, as the van-
ity of the promises and hopes of this world, which are
only false, and delusive appearances ; the consideration
of the miserable state of backsliders, and apostates ; the
dignity to which God calls his children ; the eternal
rewards, which attend perseverance; the joy of a
good man when he has gained a signal victory over temp-
tations. Violent methods may also be employed, as
inspiring an holy ambition to defeat the designs of the
world; a contempt of the plots, arid powers against us;
the hope, or rather the inviolable assurance we have,
heart by his sighs ; and offer himself to be accursed (Rom. ix. 3.) for his breth-
ren. " Aaron stood between the dead and the living, and the plague was stay-
ed."
No, my brethren, a priest, a pastor who does not pray, who does not love
prayer, does not belong to that church which prays without ceasing. He is not
united to the spirit of prayer and love. He is a dry and barren tree, which
cumbers the Lord's ground. He is the enemy, and not the father of his people.
He is a stranger who has usurped the pastor's place, and to whom the salvation
of the flock is indifferent. Wherefore my brethren, be faithful in prayer, and
your/unctions will be more useful, your people^more holy, your labours will seem
much sweeter, and the church's evils will diminish.
MASSIL, Disc. Synod, Tom. 'ii. Difc, 10.
348 AN ESSAY ON THE
that all the powers of earth joined together cannot shake
us. St. Paul uses mixed motives at the end of the eighth
of Romans. " Who shall separate us from the love of
Christ ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or
famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword ? Nay, in all
these things, we are more than conquerors through him
that loved us. For I am persuaded, that neither death,
nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor
things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth,
nor any other creature shall be able to separate us from
the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord."*
* Conclusion may be mixed. Example of a mixed conclusion fromMASSiL-
JL.ON. The annihilation of the soul is the last resource of impiety. But what
punishment would it be for a wicked man to be no more? lie wishes for annihil-
ation, and proposes it as his highest hope. He lives tranquil in the midst of his
pleasures in this agreeable expectation. What ! will the just God punish a sin-
ner by giving him what he desires? Ah ! it is not thus that God punishes. For
what can the wicked find so very bad in annihilation ? Would it be the privation
of God? But a wicked man does not love him, he does not know him, he will
not know him, for his god is himself. Would it be annihilation ? But what more
pleasing to such a monster, who knows that if he lives after death, it is only to
suffer, and expiate the horrors of an abominable life. Would it be the loss of
worldly pleasures, and of all the objects of his passions? But when he ceases to
be, he must cease to live. Imagine if you can a more desirable lot for the wick-
ed, and shall this after all be the sweet end of his debaucheries, horrors and blas-
phemies !
No, my brethren, the hope of the wicked shall perish : but his crimes shall not
perish with him. His torments will be as endless as his pleasures would have
been, if he had been master of his fate. He would fain perpetuate upon earth
his sensual pleasures; death limits his crimes, but does not limit his criminal de-
sires. The just Judge, who searches the heart, will proportion then the suffer-
ing to the offence ; immortal flames for intentionally immortal pleasures, and
sternity itself will only be a just compensation, and an equality of punishment.
These shall go away into everlasting punishment.
What is the conclusion of this discourse ? That a wicked man is to be piti-
ed for placing his highest hope in a frightful uncertainity about revealed truths.
He is to be pitied, in that he is not able to live peaceably, unless he lives with-
out faith, without worship, without God, without hope ; that he is to be pitied
if the gospel must be a fable, the faith of all ages credulity, the consent of all
men a popular error, the first principles of nature and reason childish prejudices,
the blood of so many martyrs, whom the hope of a futurity supported in tor-
COMPOSITION OF A SERMON. 349
*
A conclusion should be diversified. I mean, we should
not he content to move one single Christian passion;
many must he touched, and a proper length of discourse
assigned to each, in order to stir up the passion. Too
long time, however, must not be spent ; but when the ef-
fect is evidently produced, pass to another passion. As
the conclusion ought to be composed at least of four, or
five reflections, (naturally arising from the text, either
general, from the whole text, or particular, from some
of the parts, into which it is divided,) so, if possible these
reflections must be placed in prudent order, so that the
weakest and least powerful may be the first, and the
strongest last, and so that the discourse may become
more rapid as it runs.
I think, however, it would be vicious to finish with
motives too violent, as subjects tending to horror, indig-
nation, or heavy censure. It would be much better, in
general, to close with a tender, or even with an elevating
merits, a concerted scheme to deceive mankind ; the conversion of the universe
a human enterprize ; the accomplishment of prophecies a lucky hit ; in one word,
if all that is best established in the universe must be found false, so that he may
not be eternally miserable. What madness to be able to contrive a kind of tran-
quillity made up of so many foolish suppositions ?
O man ! I will show you a more excellent way. Fear this futurity, -which you
force yourself to doubt. Ask us no more what passes in that other life, of which
we speak ; but ask yourself frequently what you are doing in this. Calm your
conscience by the innocence of }'our manners, and not by the impiety of your
sentiments. Set your heart at rest by calling upon God, and not by doubting
whether he sees you. The peace of the wicked is only a frightful despair ; - seek
your happiness, not in shaking off the yoke of faith, but in tasting how sweet it
is. Practice the maxims it prescribes, and your reason will no longer refuse to
submit to the mysteries it proposes. Futurity will cease to be incredible to you.
whenyou cease to live like those that confine all their felicity within the bounds of
life. Then far from fearing the futurity, you will hasten to it in desire, you will
sigh after the happy day, when the Son of Man, the Father of the world to come,
will appear to punish infidels, and to receive into his kingdom all such as have
lived in expectation of a blessed immortality.
MASSIT,. Ser, Car. Tom, i.
350 COMPOSITION OP A SERMON.
motive. Different motives may be (and indeed they
ought to be) mixed in the same conclusion, that is, vio-
lent, tender, and elevated, in order to stir up many pas-
sions of different kinds.
Conclusion sometimes delights in examples, similitudes,
short and weighty sentences, the inventions of a fine im-
agination, and, in one word, it need not be either so
chaste, or so regular as the body of the sermon, where
more accuracy must be observed. There is no danger
when a preacher in a conclusion gives himself up to the
fire of his genius, provided he say nothing extravagant
or capricious, nothing that savours of enthusiasm or dec-
lamation.*
* To this purpose Bishop Burnet observes, " Artificial eloquence, without a
flame within, is like artificial poetry ; all its productions are forced, and unnat-
ural, and in a great measure ridiculous. Art helps, and guides nature ; but, if
one was not born with this Same, art will only spoil, and make him redundant.
A man must have in himself a deep sense of the truth and power of religion. He
must have a life and flame in his thoughts with relation to these subjects. . He
must have felt in himself those things, which he intends to explain, and recom-
mends to others. There is an authority in the simplest things that can be said,
when they carry visible characters of genuineness in them." Past, care, c. ix.
Give attendance to reading, exhortation, and doctrine. Neglect not the gift
that is in thee. Meditate upon these things, give thyself wholly to them. Take
heed to thyself, and to thy doctrine, continue in them ;for t in doing this, thou shall
both save thyself, and them that hear thee. Paul to Tim.
SYLLABUS
OP THE PRECEDING ESSAY.
CHAP. I.
ON THE CHOICE OF TEXTS.
Parts of a Sermon five 215
Each text must contain the complete sense of the writer . . . 216
must not contain too little matter nor too much . . . 217
The end of preaching 217
What subjects are proper for stated days of public worship . . 217
What for occasional, as ordinations, &c 217
CHAP. II.
GENERAL RULES OF SERMONS.
Sermons should be explicit and clear . . . . . . 219-.,
must give the entire sense of the text 219 '-
must be wise, sober, chaste 220
simple and grave ' . 221
instructing and affecting 222
Whether a preacher should apply as he goes on 222
Preacher should avoid excess 222
Of genius 222
Of doctrine .,....... 223
Of investigation 223
Of figures of speech 224
Of reasoning . . , 224
Of grammatical remarks . . . -. . . . 226
Of criticisms . . ....... 226
Of philosophical, historical, rhetorical observations . . . 226
Of quotations . 226
352 SYLLABUS OF I'HE PRECEDING ESSAY.
CHAP. III.
OF CONNEXION.
Connexion defined aud how to find it 227
must seldom be enlarged on 227
must sometimes make a part of the discussion . . . 227
and sometimes it affords an exordium .... 227
CHAP. IV.
OF DIVISION.
A text should not be divided into many parts 228
Division of the Sermon is proper in general for obscure subjects . . 228
Division of the text after the order of ihe words 231
Nothing must be put in the first branch of division that supposes a knowl-
edge of the second . . < 234
Division of subject and attribute ........ 235 .
Division must be expressed simply for the sake of being remembered . 240
must be connected together . - . . . . . . 241
Subdivision 241
CHAP. V.
OF TEXTS TO BE DISCUSSED BY WAY OP EXPLICATION.
Preacher must understand the sense of the text 242
comprehend the whole subject together, and perceive the
parts of which it consists ..... 242
have a general idea of theology . i . . . 242
study the nature of his text ...... 242
Two general ways- of discussing a text ; explication and observation . 243
Hules to determine the choice . 244
Difficult passages must be treated of by way of explication . . 244
Difficulties arise from ivords or things ...... 244
How to explain difficult words . . . . . . . . 244
Difficult and important subjects must be explained .... 245
Controverted texts, how to explain . . . . . . . 245
Different ways of explaining disputed texts 245
How to explain an intricate subject ....... 245
How to explain texts not difficult but important .... 248
Explication with and without proof 250
Explications of texts which have many parts 252
Explication of simple terms 253
sometimes not to be explained 266
How to explain and illustrate a proposition ..... 267
Explication of propositions which contain divers truths . . . 267
SYLLABUS OP THE PRECEDING ESSAY. 353
Explication considerable in divers views 268
which have different degrees of accomplishment . . 268
Inconsiderable propositions 268
CHAP. VI.
OP TEXTS TO BE DISCUSSED BY WAY OF OBSERVATION.
Some texts must be discussed by way of observation .... 273
as clear texts . . . . . . . . . . 273
historical texts . . - 274
Some texts require both explication and observation .... 275
How to arrange the discussion of passages of this kind . . . 275
Observation sometimes includes explication ..... 276
Observations should generally be theological 276
But in some cases they may be taken from other topics . . . 276
Observation should neither be pedantic ...... 277
nor vulgar ... . . . . . . 277
Topics . . . . . . . .- . . 278
As I. Genus . . . . . 278
II. Species . . 278
III. Character of a virtue or a vice . . . . 280
IV. Relation 284
V. Implication . 286
VI. Persons speaking or acting 289
VII. State . . 291
VIII. Time 292
IX. Place 292
X. Persons addressed ........ 293
XI. Particular state of persons addressed . . . . . 295
XII. Principles . ~ . . . . . . . . 295
XIII. Consequences . o . 296
XIV. End proposed . 298
XV. Manner 299
XVI. Comparison of some subjects with other subjects . . 300
XVII. Difference 302
. XVIII. Contrast . . . . .' ~ . . . . 303
XIX. Ground 304,
XX. Composition .......... 307
XXI. Supposition ......... 309
XXII. Objection 310
XXIII. Character of expression 312
XXIV. Degrees 317
XXV. Interests 318
XXVI. Distinction 320
XXVII. Comparison of one part of a subject with another part of
the same subject 321
45
354 SYLLABUS OF THE PRECEDING ESSAY.
CHAP. VII.
OF APPLICATION.
Discussion by application ......... 323
CHAP. VIII.
OP PROPOSITION.
Discussion of proposition, what . . . . . . . 334
CHAP. IX.
OF THE EXORDIUM.
Exordium, what 328
Whether exordiums be necessary 328
The ends proposed in exordiums 333
They are principally two . 335
Exordiums must be short &c. . . 336
May sometimes be figurative 340
Vices of exordiums . 341
Affectation . 342
Use of apothegms ......... 342
Citations from profane authors . 342
In what cases they are proper ....... 342
The best are taken from theology 343
How to compose them 343
They may be taken from common-places, sacred history, types, &c. . 343
CHAP. X.
OF THE CONCLUSION.
What conclusions ought to be in general " 345
May sometimes be mixed 348
Must always be diversified . . . , . . . 349
The best conclusions . . . . . . . . . 349
GREGORY
ON THE COMPOSITION AND DELIVERY OF
A SERMON.
ON THE
COMPOSITION AND DELIVERY
OE A
SERMON.
I DO not know any species of composition, which is
more deserving of critical attention, than that, which is
appropriated to the pulpit ; and I will add, that I do not
know any which appears to want it more. That it is
from its nature liable to very great abuses, and at no
time since the apostolic age has been free from error,
must be allowed by every person conversant in the lit-;
erary history of the church ; but, of late years, so de-
praved a taste has been introduced by the love of nov-
elty, and the admission of illiterate persons into holy or-
ders, that the keenest inspection of criticism is become
necessary to reduce to order the extravagancies of pul-
pit empiricism. A few observations, therefore, having
occurred to my recollection, and conceiving that this vol-
ume might probably be read by some of the younger
clergy, as well as by a few of the religious part of the
.laity, I determined to embrace the opportunity of pre=
senting them to the public.
358 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
The utility of these remarks, however, may possibly
not be altogether confined to one species of composition.
What I have to advance, with respect to style in par-
ticular, will, I flatter myself, not be unacceptable to young
writers in general : indeed, every attempt to refine the
taste, and to exercise the judgment, is generally found
of advantage beyond the sphere of its immediate inten-
tion.
As I do not pretend to exhibit a complete view of
the subject, I have entitled this attempt, " Thoughts on
the Composition and Delivery of a Sermon." But, as
desultory maxims or precepts are seldom of much use, I
have endeavoured to reduce my sentiments to some kind
of order ; and (after stating in general terms the rise
and progress of this species of oratory in the Christian
church) the grand divisions, which I mean to adopt, will
be, the choice of a subject, the arrangement, and the style:
to which I mean to add a few cursory observations re-
specting manner or delivery*
* The design of Christian oratory (says St. Auguslin) is either to instruct
men in the truth, to refute their errors, or to persuade them to the practice of
virtue, and an abhorrence of vice. The first requires plain narration ; the sec-
ond, strength of argument and ratiocination ; and the third, the art of moving the
mind and affections. As the Christian orator speaks that only which is holy,
just, and good, he endeavours to speak in such a manner, that he may be heard
with understanding, with pleasure, and with effect. That he may be heard with
understanding, he speaks with plainness and perspicuity, and a regard to the ca-
pacities and knowledge of his hearers ; that he may be heard with pleasure, he
will pay such attention to the common rules of eloquence, as to endeavour to
speak with acuteness, elegance, and strength ; and, that he may be heard with
effect, he will labour to persuade and to convince his auditors of the truth and
importance of his doctrines.
AUG. de Doctrin. Christo, 1. 4. c. 4.
Idem, 1. 4. c. 15. Idem, 1. 4. c. 5.
Idem. 1. 4. c. 12.
DELIVERY OP A SERMON. 359
I.
OP THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OP PULPIT ORATORY.
In the primitive church a custom prevailed, which
may be ultimately traced into the Jewish ;* though the
time of its introduction into the latter is not very easily
ascertained. The bishop or preshyter, who read the
portion of Scripture selected for the day, concluded that
part of the service with a general explanation of what
had been read, and with earnestly exhorting the audi-
ence to profit from the instructions, or to imitate the ex-
ample, which had then been exhibited.! These exhorta-
tions were brief and unadorned, and were sometimes ac-
companied with other explications of Scripture, which
were successively delivered by those of the society, who
declared themselves under the peculiar influence of the
Spirit ; while their prophetic brethren, who were pres-
ent in the assembly, decided upon the respect which
was due to their authority.}: It is probable that what
at first consisted only of a few short and perhaps uncon-
nected sentences would gradually, and by those who
possessed fluency of thought and facility of expression,
be made to assume a more regular form. Origen was
the first who introduced long explanatory discourses into
Christian assemblies ; and preaching in his time began to
be formed upon the nice rules of Grecian eloquence.
The great superiority of these studied and regular
* See LUKE iv. 16, 17. xx. 1. xxi. 37. JOHN viii. 20. ACTS xiii. 13,
t Justin. Apol. 2, p. 98.
t JVIosheim, Cent. 1, Part 2, Chap. 4.
9 Mosh. Cent. 3, Part 2, Chap. 4.
360 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
compositions over extempore effusions soon excluded the
latter almost entirely from the service of the church,
though at some periods we find them occasionally re-
sorted to. Origen,* the great father of pulpit-oratory,
at above sixty years of age, and when by continued use
and exercise he had acquired great facility both in com-
position and delivery, began to indulge himself in the
practice of extempore oratory. The custom, however,
was not confined to him. Cyril and several of his
contemporaries addressed their respective audiences in
unprepared discourses, which the diligence of the pub-
lic notaries of the church has preserved from oblivion ;
and many of the sermons of Chrysostom, together with
his celebrated discourse upon his return from banish-
ment, are proofs not only of the- existence of the cus-
tom, but that extempore compositions are not necessari-
ly deficient either in elegance or method. It is proba-
ble, however, that, at a time when nice and determined
rules had been formed for pulpit-oratory, few would at-
tempt extempore addresses, except upon sudden and
particular emergencies, and then they would be at-
tempted by such only as previous habits of study and
recitation had peculiarly qualified for the practice. Of
those which have reached posterity, we know that many,
and probable the greater part, received the after cor-
rections of their respective authors/!"
However diminutive and simple m its origin, preach-
ing very soon came to be considered as a principal part
* Euseb. lib. 6. c. 36.
t At the Reformation in England, many complaints were made of those, who
were licensed to preach ; and that they might be able to justify themselves, they
began generally to write and read their sermons ; the manifest superiority of this
mode over extempore preaching has continued it in the church of England ever
since. See BUBWBTT'S Hist. Reform. Vol. I. p. 317.
DELIVERY OF A -SERMON. 361
of public worship. Sometimes two or three sermons*
were preached in tfcie same assembly by the presbyters
and bishops in succession ; and, when two or more bish-
ops happened to be present, it was usual for them to
preach after each other, reserving the last place for the
most eminent person. The sermons upon these occa-
sions were necessarily short, as the time limited for pub-
lic worship was only two hours. It was probably upon
some of these occasions that the short sermons of St.
Augustin were composed, many of which may be pro-
nounced distinctly, and delivered in eight minutes, and
a few in almost half that time.
The general regard, which was paid to preaching, as
a necessary part of public worship, is evident from its
having formed a part of the discipline of every Chris-
tian church, except that of Rome, in which, as Sozo-
men informs us,f at the, time he wrote no such custom
existed. Sermons were however again introduced into
that church by Leo, but again discontinued, till, after
an interval of more than five hundred years, Pius V.
once more made them a necessary ,part of public wor-
ship.
As the institution of preaching commenced in the
explication of Scripture, it still retained, through the
many revolutions of the public taste, some respect to its
origin ; and, with a few exceptions, a portion of the sa-
cred writings always* constituted the basis of the dis-
course ;J though latterly it was reduced almost to the
form of a motto, which had frequently but little con-
* Bingham's Eccl. Antiq. book 14. c. 4.
t Sozom. lib. 7. c. 19.
J Some of the homilies of Chrysoatom were preached without a test. CHRYS.
Horn. Post. Red. 3, 4, 5, 6. &c. Melancthon heard a priest at Paris, who took
his text from Aristotle's Ethics.
46
362 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
nexfon with the principal subject. From this state of
facts we may easily perceive the sgurce of those two
modes of exhortation, which now prevail in the church ;
I mean the simply explanatory, and the didactic or es-
say style. Both have their particular uses, and perhaps
neither ought to be uniformly preferred.
II.
OP THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT.
However custom may have indulged the Christian
orator with respect to the modes in which he is to con-
vey instruction, still, in the choice of a subject, young
preachers will do well to advert in general to the origin
of the institution ; to consider that its immediate design
is the exposition of Scripture. And, though I see no
reason for excluding utterly from the pulpit those dis-
courses, which treat of the virtues and vices in an ab-
stract and philosophical manner ; yet I confess, that
sermon, which follows the order of the text, appears
more immediately consistent with the design, and more
correspondent to the nature of the composition.
For the same reason, I am induced to prefer those
discourses, which tend to remove the difficulties, and elu-
cidate the obscurities of the Scriptures. I do not wish
to be understood, as recommending any tedious philolog-
ical disquisitions, any laborious collations, or those exer-
cises, which are obviously only calculated for the closet.
It is difficult to command the attention of a common
congregation, be the matter ever so plain and practical.
It would therefore be scarcely less absurd to introduce
mathematical calculations than such disquisitions as these.
I am still more offended with those preachers, who
DELIVERY OF A SERMON. 363
regularly pay their audience the unwelcome compliment
of supposing their faith in continual danger of invasion ;
and conceive it absolutely necessary to be constantly in-
sisting on the proofs of revelation. The persons, to
whom alone such reasoning can be of use, take care very
seldom to throw themselves in its Avay ; and, as Swift
remarks, can any thing be more absurd, " than, for the
sake of three or four fools, who are past grace, to per-
plex the minds of well disposed people with doubts,
which probably would never have otherwise come into
their minds ?"
The church of GOD was never intended as a school
of speculation, or a place to indulge the licentiousness
of fancy in doubtful disputation. It is a wrelched abuse
of time to bewilder our hearers in the nice distinctions
of the schoolmen, in the explanation of mysteries, which
perhaps are not to be explained, or which at least re-
quire much previous study, and call for all the advan-
tages of solitude, and of leisure, to enable the mind to
comprehend or to follow the tenour of the argument.
But, the most absurd and useless of all discourses are
those, which treat of questions absolutely removed be-
yond the sphere of our knowledge. Such are many
sermons concerning the manner of the divine existence ;
the state of the soul after death ; the nature of the hy
postatic union; the existence, the number of the angels,
and the means of their communication ; what would
have been the state of Adam if the fall had never taken
place ; and abundance of olher topics, which can only
serve to gratify an idle and visionary humour of specu-
lation, and can answer no practical end whatever.
In this place it may not be improper to remark, that
all fantastical applications of Scripture are carefully to
364 ON THE COMPOSITION AN1>
be avoided. It is dangerous on any occasion to depart
from the plain track of common sense ; and there is no
attempt at ingenuity so easy as that, which borders up-
on nonsense. Most of the French sermons are of this
kind.* There is one of Massillon upon the story of the
woman of Samaria, which will afford a tolerable speci-
men. " I find here," says the preacher, " three reasons
for resisting the grace of Christianity : 1st, her station
or condition ; How is it that thou being a Jew, asTcest
drink of me, ivho am a woman of Samaria f 2d, the diffi-
culty ; the well is deep, &c. 3d, the variety of opinions ;
our fathers worshipped on this mountain, &c." The heads
of the discourse are extremely well chosen ; but it is
obvious, that the application of the text to them is mere
trifling ; a sport of the fancy in opposition to every prm-*-
ciple of reason, and contrary to that seriousness and re*-
spect, with which the word of GOD ought ever to be
treated.
Lastly. Unity and simplicity are in every case essen-
tial to perfection. A sermon must have one determinate
end and object ; must be confined to the explaining of
a single doctrine, or the enforcing of some one virtue.
An accumulation of thought always oppresses the hu-
man mind; ,and, where there are too many arguments or
* Those critics, whose complaisance or whose indolence has induced them to
take their opinion of Gallic eloquence from the critics of that nation, have rash-
ly assigned the preference to the oratory of the French pulpit. I have gone
through the drudgery of perusing all the most celebrated of their preachers ;
and I will not hesitate to declare, that, except a sermon or two of Massillon, there
are scarcely any which deserve, I will not say to be compared with the English
preachers, but to be read at all. They are in general written, indeed, in a style
of animated rhetoric, but altogether in a bad taste. They abound in points,
antitheses, and conceits. But, their great defect is a poverty of matter. It is
difficult, through the mass of words, to find any ideas at all ; and when you haye
fqupd them, as Gratjano says, " they are not worth the search,'?
DELIVERY OP A SERMON. 365
precepts, there is a great chance that none of them will
be remembered.* Those preachers, who attempt to
crowd the whole duty of a man, moral and religious, in-
to a single sermon, can only be compared to their breth-
ren of the laity, who pretend to cure all diseases by a
single nostrum. By thus attempting to give you every
thing, they in fact give you nothing ; and we find that,
however they vary their texts, the sermon is always
the same ; the same trite chain of general sentiments,
without any specific or useful instruction whatever.
By recommending an attention to the origin of the
institution, I may seem to have insinuated, that a long
text is generally preferable to a short one. I have
however found it otherwise by experience, and have sel-
dom known the former either useful or agreeable. A
long text frequently involves such a number of proposi-
tions as must effectually destroy the unity of a discourse ;
besides, that a text, when well-chosen, and not too long,
will commonly be remembered, and of itself will make
a distinct and useful impression on the hearers.
The contrary error is, however, still more reprehen-
sible. It is one of the mean artifices of barren genius,
to surprise the audience with a text consisting of one or
two words. I have heard of a person of this descrip-
tion, who preached from the words " Jehovah Jireh,"
and another, from the monosyllable " But."t These
are contemptible devices, more adapted to the moving
* " Propose one point in one discourse, and stick to it ; a. hearer mever car-
ries away more than one impression." PALEY'S Ordination Sermon.
t He perhaps might justify himself upon the same principle with Dr. Ea-
chard's divine, who made AND one of the heads of his discourse, adding ; " this
word is but a particle, and a small one ; but small things are not to be despis-
ed ; RJatt. xviii. 10 ; Take heed that ye despise not one of these LITTLE onss. n
Contempt of the Clergy, p. 82,
366 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
theatre of the mountebank than to the pulpit, and can
only serve to captivate the meanest and most ignorant
of the vulgar.*
III.
OP ARRANGEMENT.
With respect to arrangement, it will also be necessa-
ry to have some regard to what has been remarked con-
cerning the origin of preaching. It is evident that, when
a sermon is explanatory or illustrative of Scripture, it
ought to follow the order and spirit of the text. When
it is not so, it must follow that order, which is dictated
by sound logic, and the laws of composition. There are
some texts, which contain several members, or inferior
propositions ; such is that of Micah vi. 8 ; " What is re-
quired of thee, O man, but to do justly, and to love
mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God ?" Such is
that of St. Paul, 1 Cor. xiii j " Charity suffereth long,
and is kind ; charity envieth not ; charity vaunteth not
itself." &c. and these naturally divide themselves. Though
I think young preachers ought to be cautioned rather to
follow the order of the sense than of the words. Again,
there are some texts, which as it were carry the preach-
er along with the course of the narrative ; of this we
have an example in Massillon's sermon on the parable
of the rich man and Lazarus. Some texts, according to
the nature of the subject, will only admit of two divis-
* " Never choose such tests as have not a complete sense ; for, only imper-
tinent and foolish people will attempt to preach from one or two words, which
signify nothing." Claude, e. i.
" Give me a serious preacher, (says Fenelon,) who speaks for my sake,
not for his own."
DELIVERY OF A SERMON. 367
ions, even when they seem to contain more parts or
members; for instance, Bishop Taylor's famous sermon
on Matt. xvi. 26; " What shall a man profit, if he gain
the whole world, and lose his own soul ; or, what shall
a man give in exchange for his soul ?" Here the preach-
er divides his sermon into two parts ; and first inquires
into the value of the world, and how far a man may be
profited by the possession of it; and, secondly, he in-
quires into the nature and value of a soul, and the loss
to be sustained in parting with it.*
There are, however, texts, which contain only one
simple proposition. In this case, the sermon assumes
the form of an essay : and the judgment of the author
must direct him to that arrangement, which appears
most commodious. For instance, if the purpose of the
discourse be to recommend the practice of some moral
virtue, the preacher may first state its general utility to
mankind ; afterwards its necessity, according to the law
of GOD ; and, lastly, he may enforce it in a particular ad-
dress to his hearers, founded on the preceding argu-
ments.
The sermons of the last century in general consisted
of too many divisions. The hearers were bewildered
* Sermons will perhaps admit of another classification. 1. When the dis-
course is altogether an explanation or elucidation of the text. 2. When a prac-
tical application is to be drawn from the text. And, 3. When both those objects
are united ; and I apprehend it will be found the most acceptable mode of preach-
ing on doctrinal texts, or those, which require explanation, to endeavour towards
the close of the discourse, to draw some practical inference from it.
Vitringa's rules, for preaching on doctrinal texts, are " 1. State the doc-
trine clearly. 2. Prove and illustrate it by parallel texts ; and, if possible, by
reasoning. 3. Vindicate it, if you think any of your auditors deny it. 4. Bring
it home to the heart." ROBIITSOW'S Claude, Vol. I. p. 402.
"The Sermons of the third century (says Mr. Robinson) "are divisible into
three general parts. 1. A short introduction. 2. An exposition of the text.
And, last, a moral exhortation arising out of the discussion," Ibid.
368 ON THE COMPOSITION
in pursuing the arrangement of the preacher, and lost
the sentiments while they were attending to the order
of the discourse. There are indeed some. sermons, which
only deserve the name of heads of an oration. The
moderns have fallen into an opposite extreme, namely,
a total neglect of order and method. Common sense
points out a middle course : i't is obvious, that a few nat-
ural and easy divisions assist the memory; while it is
commonly perplexed and confused hy too many.
Thus far as to the arrangement of sermons in partic-
ular ; but there is an arrangement, or order, of a gener-
al nature, which must be attended to in every composi-
tion ; and is absolutely necessary to be observed in those
discourses, which are founded upon such texts as con-
tain a simple proposition, and therefore treat of the vir-
tues or vices, or of the particular doctrines of religion
in an abstract manner, and without any regard to the
literal order of the text. Perhaps the simplest division
is that of Aristotle,* into, the exordium, which introduc-
es the speaker and the subject ; the proposition, which
explains the design of the oration; the proof, or argu-
ment, which supports it ; and the conclusion, which ap-
plies it directly to the audience.
I. With respect to the exordium, or introduction, the
first rule is, that it be very clear. For, as the intent of
it is to prepare the minds of the hearers, if any thing
abstruse or paradoxical occur, there will be some dan-
ger of alienating their minds in such a manner, that they
will probably not be able to recover their attention dur-
ing the whole discourse. For this reason, long senten-
ces ought to be avoided, as they are apt to perplex the
understanding, as well as to fatigue the ear, and run the
* Rhet. 1. iii. c. 13.
DELIVERY OF A SERMOft. ' 369
speaker out of breath before he is properly entered
upon his subject.
In the second place, an exordium should always be
cool, temperate, and modest. The exordium of Sterne
to his sermon on the house of mourning, " That I de-
ny," is a paltry artifice, unworthy the imitation of any
man of taste or genius. Indeed I know no author so
likely as Sterne to corrupt the style and taste of his
readers ; all his writings are full of trick and affectation,
(the very opposite of those chaste models of eloquence
which antiquity has transmitted to us,) and are at best
only calculated to excite the momentary admiration of
the unthinking part of mankind*
Thirdly. It is remarked by Cicero, that a common-
place exordium, such as the following, " Happiness is the
great end and aim of all human pursuits," is generally a
token of a barren genius, and has therefore a very ill
effect. As the whole oration is necessarily confined with-
in very narrow limits, that exordium, which leads most
directly "to the subject, is certainly to be preferred.
Fourthly. An exordium should be agreeable and ea-
sy. The pleasing is absolutely necessary to conciliate
the good opinion of every audience.
Fifthly. I would recommend brevity as a particular
excellence on the present occasion. It was the usual
custom of the old divines to introduce their discourses
by a long historical or explanatory exordium, setting forth
the state and circumstances of the person to whom the
text related, &c. &c., which was nothing more than re-
tailing the history of the Bible, in language always infe-
rior, and frequently very indifferent and homely ; as our
47
370 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
auditors, however, are not quite so patient, these tedious
introductions are necessarily and properly laid aside.*
I would wish one point to be particularly adverted
to in this place ; and that is, that the eloquence of the
pulpit is essentially different from that of political assem-
blies. In the latter it may be proper, and is probably
sometimes absolutely necessary, to preface a motion or
argument by some account of the speaker and his mo-
tives. In the pulpit, there can be nothing so disgusting,
so impertinent, and so vulgar, as egotism. The preach-
er should, never appear himself; he is only the represen-
tative of another ; he comes to explain the word of God,
and not to sacrifice to his own vanity. The long intro-
ductions of Cicero or Demosthenes are, therefore, not to
be imitated by pulpit orators.
II. The necessity of acquainting the audience with
the design of the speaker is so obvious, that little need
be urged on the subject of tHe prepositive part of a dis-
course. If any definitions of terms be required, (as may
be the case, when the text is liable to be misunderstood,
or when some material doctrine depends upon the inter-
pretation of that passage of Scripture-,) it will be prop-
er to introduce them in this part ; since, if deferred to
the middle or the conclusion, they may chance to prove
soporiferous. In truth, I do not know any thing more
disgusting than insisting too much on the definition of
* Brevity, in every part of a composition designed for the pulpit, appears to
have been at all times a considerable desideratum with great numbers of the peo-
ple. Frequent exhortations, to hear patiently the word of GOB, occur in the
writings of the fathers, and various stratagems were used to detain their auditors
.till the close of the service, even so far as to lock the doors of the church and
confine them. These ingenious devices were inforced by ecclesiastical laws ;
and the 4th council of Carthage enacted, that those, who showed a contempt for
the discourses of their teachers should be excommunicated from the church.
Cyprian Vit* Ccesar, c. 12. Cone. Carlh. 4. Can. 24.
DELIVERY OP A SERMON. 371
single terms. M. Claude, who appears in general to
have had very just notions of preaching, errs greatly
against simplicity in this respect. In one of the outlines
of sermons, which he exhibits as models, from a single
expression N in the text, " Whoever will come after me,
let him deny himself, and take up his cross," he takes
occasion to introduce a long dissertation on sanctification,
another on affliction ; and the plan of the discourse, ac-
cording to his arrangement, contains the substance of at
least four moderate sermons.
III. The proofs, or argumentative part, must entire-
ly depend upon the nature of the subject. There is -an
excellent collection of topics upon moral subjects in Ar-
istotle's Rhetoric ; but Bishop Wilkins' Ecclesiastes, or
Gift of Preaching, is one of the most ingenious books
that I have seen for the assistance of young preachers.
I cannot pass this opportunity without again recom-
mending, in the strongest terms, an attention to unity.
Without this, a composition (if indeed it deserve the
name) can never be useful ; and least of all a composi-
tion which is to be heard, and not studied, A good sermon
must have a single object, the more simple the better ;
and every part of the discourse must tend to impress
this object forcibly on the mind. It is almost unneces-
sary to add, that a judicious preacher will form a sort of
climax in his reasoning, and reserve his most forcible ar.
gu merits for the last. The argument ought also to be
full and pointed. I have heard sermons, in which, after
the principal matter was closed, a tail, or codicil, contain-
ing something not very essential" to the subject, succeed?
ed, which, like Pope's Alexandrine,
its slow length along."
There is a very good receipt for sermon-making in
372 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
M. Claude's Essay on that subject. I would even ad-
vise the unpractised student to adopt occasionally some
of his topics, and form them into sermons, in the order
which he has prescribed ; this exercise will tend to give
him just notions of method, and a facility in arranging
his ideas : and will not only be more improving, but more
creditable than the usual practice of transcribing printed
sermons.
Another practice, which I would recommend to young
divines, is, before they sit down to compose a sermon, to
read some of the best authors, who have treated of the
same subject ; to close the books, and endeavour to
throw the matter into that order, which appeared most
perspicuous and pleasing. Reading different authors
upon the subject will give a variety to their ideas ; and,
by writing without the books before them, the expres-
sion will at least be their own.
If, however, the young preacher be altogether diffi-
dent of his own powers ; not willing to hazard original
composition, and yet desirous of improvement ; let him
take the substance of his discourse from some approved
commentary on the Scriptures, and occasionally enliven
the explication by some remarks of his own. Let him
draw a few practical inferences at the conclusion ; and
this will not only improve him in the knowledge of the
Scriptures, but will gradually exercise his judgment, and
form his taste for composition.
I must add, that most of the proofs, which Christian
preachers introduce, ought to be scriptural proofs. If
they preach morality, it must be the morality of the
Gospel. Unless a sincere and fervent strain of piety
pervade the whole composition, il*will not, nor indeed
ought it to meet with general regard. The sermons of
DELIVERY OP A SERMON. 373
Archbishop Seeker are deserving pf high commendation
in this respect; but the most perfect models are to be
found in a volume lately published by an amiable and
accomplished prelate of our church.*
IV. The CONCLUSION of a sermon should not (indeed,
considering the present length of discourses, must not)
be prolix. It ought in general to be practical ; and it
is obvious, that it requires a more animated style than
any other part of the composition. I do not know a
more useful form for a concluding address, than that
which consists of a recapitulation of the principal matter
of the sermon ; indeed, if the subject be not very plain
and obvious, such a conclusion is absolutely necessary.
It serves not only to recal all the useful and striking
passages to the minds of the audience, but gives them
a clearer view of the whole than they would otherwise
have, and impresses it on the memory .t Variety is how-
ever necessary; and, I confess, I do not know so great a
blemish in Dr. Ogden's excellent sermons, as a want of
variety in their conclusions. If the peroration do not
consist of a recapitulation, it ought at least to proceed
naturally and regularly from the subject.
On the whole, it is practice only, which can impart
facility and method in the arrangement of our ideas.
Rules can only serve to restrain the irregularities of the
imagination. It would be impossible, in such a disserta*
tion as the present, or indeed in any work of criticism,
* The practice here recommended has been the torpedo of the English pul-
pit. EDITOR.
f It would not be easy for the popular preachers of the day to adopt this
form, as their compositions are mere farragos, collected from all quarters of the
globe, with no unity of subject, no regard to text, no express object whatever in
view. I speak not of extempore preachers, since method is hardly to be expect-
ed from them. I speak of those who pretend to write, and would be thought
profound theologians,
374 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
to furnish thoughts or sentiments. Since Mr. Addison
recommended the practice, it is become very common
among the clergy to preach from the sermons of ap-
proved authors, either by abridging them, or sometimes
by transcribing them entire. The practice is, in my
opinion, more for the benefit of the audience, than of
the clergy themselves, though the former are the only
persons likely to complain.* What person of common
sense, indeed, would not rather hear a sermon of Sher-
lock, of Seeker, of Porteus, or of Blair, than the trite
and unconnected jargon, with which we are generally
assailed by the most popular preachers in the metrop-
olis ? If these men (whose voices are generally good, and
whose manner, if not quite so affected, might be rather
conciliating) would, in the room of their own bombast,
favour their auditors with a good printed sermon, they
would find that they might, in general, pass undetected,
and their exhibitions would not be so uniformly disgust-
ing as they are to persons of taste and erudition.
The most formidable objection against the use of
printed sermons, is, that it removes the younger clergy
out of the way of improvement, and probably produces
a habit of indolence. When, however, they do not com-
pose their own discourses, I would advise them to apply
to approved authors, rather than to obscure or indiffer-
ent writers, as is frequently done to avoid discovery. It
is much better to be. sometimes detected, than to tire an
audience by continually preaching indifferent, matter ;
and the observation is but too true, that, where there is
* This practice is so far from novel, that it is of considerable antiquity in
the church. Augustin rather commended than blamed those preachers, who,
when conscious of their own inability to compose well, availed themselves of the
performances of others, dug. Doctrin. Christ. I. 4. c. 29.
DELIVERY OF A SERMON. 375
not genius to compose, there is seldom judgment to se-
Jlect. .
IV.
OF STYLE.
The third object, which I proposed to treat of in this
dissertation, is style. I must however premise, that in
the compositions for the pulpit, as well as in every oth-
er, unless there be a ground work of good sense and ar-
gument, unless there be solidity of reasoning and energy
of 'sentiment, all the graces of style will be accumulated
in vain.
The essentials of a good style, at least as far as re-
gards the present subject, may be reduced to three :
perspicuity, purity, and a moderate portion of ornament.
I. PERSPICUITY is the first excellence of style ; indeed
I do not know so decisive a proof of genius. A smooth
and polished diction, or pompous figures, are frequently
the achievements of dullness j but it is the characteristic
of genius alone to flash conviction and instruction on the
minds of the audience.* Perspicuity will depend, in the
first place, on the choice of words ; and, secondly, on the
arrangement of them.
As far as regards the choice of words, obscurity results,
in the first place,
From obsolete or affected language, which is not gen-
erally understood. No person of taste would wish at
present to imitate the language of our liturgy in the use
of the word prevent, " Prevent us, O Lord, in all our
doings ;" . nor in that of the word after, " O Lord, re-
*
* " By perspicuity, (says Quintilian,) care is taken, not that the hearer may
understand, if he will ; but, that he must understand, -whether he -will or not.' 1
376* ON THEl COMPOSITION AND
ward us not after our iniquities." Many abuses of words
have been introduced from the French idiom : Lord Bo-
lingbroke, for instance, says, " by the persons I intend
here," instead of I mean. Analogous to this is the use
of Latinisms, as integrity to denote entireness, conscience
for consciousness : ".The conscience of approving one's self
a benefactor to mankind is the noblest recompense for
being so."
Again, obscurity proceeds from the use of ambiguous
or indefinite words. Examples of this occur in the fol-
lowing sentences : " As for such animals as are mortal,
(or noxious,) we have a right to destroy them." " The
Christians rudely disturbed the service of paganism ; and,
rushing in crowds round the tribunals of the magistrates,
called upon them to pronounce and inflict the sentence
of the law." Here it is not easy to define what service
is meant, whether civil or religious. A similar ambigui-
ty may be found in the same author. Speaking of the
cruelty of Valentinian, the historian adds : " The merit
of Maximin, who has slaughtered the noblest families of
Rome, was rewarded with the royal approbation and
the prefecture of Gaul. .Two fierce and enormous bears,
distinguished by the appellations of Innocence and Mi-
caaurea, could alone deserve to share the favour of Max-
imin." It is evident that we must have recourse to the
context to understand that these creatures were not the
favourites of Maximin, but of Valentinian. A writer on
criticism has the following sentence : " There appears
to be a remarkable difference between one of the first of
ancient and of modern critics." The embarrassment of
this sentence would have been entirely avoided by in-
serting the words one of the first a second time, which
probably an apprehension of offending the ear prevented.
DELIVERY OF A SERMON. 37?
The cases are so very numerous, in which an ill
choice of words, or an imprudent use of them, may
darken the expression, that it would be almost impossi-
ble to prescribe any definite rules upon the subject.-^*
Perfection in this respect is only to be acquired by prac-
tice. Possibly the following remarks may be of some
use to young writers. First. Endeavour to inform your-
self perfectly concerning the etymology and meaning of
words. Secondly. Consult the best modern authors, and
observe their different applications. The original sense
is not always a certain guide *in the use of common
words ; though, if nicely attended to, it will sometimes
help us to the reasons of their application. Thirdly.
Be not too anxious for variety of expression. It is well
observed by the Abbe Girard, that when a perform-
ance grows dull, it is not so much, because the ear is
tired by the frequent repetition of the same sound, as
because the mind is fatigued by the frequent recurrence
of the same idea. Lastly. We cannot be too much on ,
our guard against the vulgar idiom. Most writers whp
affect ease and familiarity in writing are apt to slide " in-
to it.
" But ease in writing flows from art, not chance, ' '""='
" As those move easiest who have learn'd to dance."
That ambiguity, as well as-inaccuracy, is not uncommon-
ly the effect of introducing the vulgar phraseology into
written composition, is evident from the very incorrect
and absurd use of the active verb to lay, instead of the
neuter verb to lie. This solecism has arisen I presume
from confounding the past tense of the latter with the
present of the former verb. Let it be observed, how-
ever, that when a noun follows in the objective case, the
verb active (to lay) may be used; as, to lay down ay
48
378 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
employment ; and sometimes when the verb is reflect-
ed; as,
" Soft on the flow'ry herb I found me ta'df."
But, to say "Death lays upon her like an untimely frost,"
or to say " I have a work laying by me, would be a gross
and intolerable barbarism.
Perspicuity is injured by bad arrangement, in the fol-
lowing instances.
1st. By separating the adjective from its proper sub-
stantive ; " they chose to indulge themselves in the hour
of natural festivity." Better " in the natural hour of
festivity."
2dly. By using the same pronoun in reference to
different persons or things in the same sentence ; " and
they did all eat and were filled ; and they took up of the
fragments that remained twelve baskets full." By the
last they it is difficult to say who are meant, the multi-
tude or only the disciples. The following sentences are
faulty on account of an indiscreet use of the relative.
Speaking of Porto Bello ; " this celebrated harbour,
which was formerly very well defended by forts, which
Admiral Vernon destroyed in 1740, seems to afford an
entrance 600 toises broad; but is so straitened with
rocks that are near the surface of the Avater, that it is re-
duced to a very narrow channel." Better thus : " this
celebrated harbour was defended, &c." " It seems to
afford, &c." " This activity drew great numbers of en-
terprising men over to Virginia, who came either in
search of fortune, or of liberty, which is the only compen-
sation for the want of it : n here the two antecedents
are sx> confounded, that it requires a pause to distinguish
them, and the construction is very ungraceful as well as
obscure. One mode of avoiding ambiguity in this case
DELIVERY OF A SERMON. 379
/
will be, when two antecedents occur, putting one of
them, if possible in the plural, and the other in the sin-
gular number.
3dly. Obscurity is produced by separating the ad-
verb and the adjective, or the adverb and the
verb. Ex. " A power is requisite of fixing the in-
tellectual eye upon successive objects so steadily, as
that the more may never prevent us from doing jus-
tice to the less important." " His subject is precisely
of that kind, which a daring imagination could alone
have adopted :" here it is not accurately defined wheth-
er a daring imagination only could have adopted, &e. or
whether it could have adopted that subject on%, and no
other. "He conjured' the senate, that the purity of
his reign might not be stained by the blood even of a
guilty senator ;" the arrangement would be more per-
fect, " by the blood of even a guilty senator." " He
atoned for the murder of an innocent son, by the execu-
tion, perhaps, of a guilty wife ;" the doubt in this sen-
tence may apply to the reality of the execution. " Their
intimacy had commenced in the happier period, perhaps,,
of their youth and obscurity."
4thly. The following is an example of ambiguity
arising from the wrong position of a conjunction. The
historian, speaking of an impolitic edict of Julian, thus
expresses himself; " He enacted /to, in a time of scarc-
ity, it (corn) should be sold at a price, which had seldom
been known in the most plentiful years." A common
reader would infer from the above, that it was a stand-
ing order, that corn should in every time of scarcity be
sold cheaper than in a time of plenty, which does not
appear from the context to be the intention of the au-
thor. Speaking of parents misjudging of the conduct of
schoolmasters, a modern author on education adds ; " It
380 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
has broke* the peace of many an ingenuous man, who
had engaged in the care of youth, and paved the way
to the ruin of hopeful hoys. It is not perfectly clear
whether the circumstance or the master " paved the
way, &c." It is impossible to decipher the following
sentence. Respecting the Pennsylvania marble, of which
chimney-pieces, tables, &c. are made, the historian adds ;
" These valuable materials could not have been found in
common in the houses, unless they had been lavished in
the churches."
5thly. Perspicuity is injured very frequently by the
fear, of concluding a sentence with a trifling word ; but
surely, however ungraceful, a confused style is a much
greater blemish. " The court of chancery," says a re-
spectable author, " frequently mitigates, and breaks
" the teeth of the common law." From this sentence
it might be inferred, that it mitigated the teeth. Betr
ter, therefore ; frequently mitigates the common law,
and breaks the teeth of it," or " its teeth."
6thly. It is an old observation, that the desire of
brevity generally induces obscurity. This is exempli-
fied in many forms of expression, to which habit serves
to reconcile us, but which are in themselves really am-
biguous. Thus we speak of " the reformation of La-
ther ;" which, if the circumstance were not well under-
stood, might mean the reformation of the man, instead
of the reformation of the church.
7thly. An error opposite to this is long sentences
and parentheses. Long periods, however, seldom create
obscurity, when the natural order of thought is preserve
ed ; especially if each division, clause, or member of the
sentence, be complete in itself. It is in general the in-*
f Broke instead of broken^ is bad grammar.
DELIVERY OF A SERMOJT. 381
sertion of foreign matter, and parenthetical sentences,
that confuse a style.
From these few observations concerning perspicuity,
it will be sufficiently obvious, that the obscurity of some
preachers does not result from the profundity and sub-
limity of their matter, (as they would wish us to be-
lieve,) nor yet altogether from a confusion of ideas, but
frequently from a turbid and perplexed style. In gen-
eral, however, we may safely lay it down as an incontro-
vertible maxim, that the sermon, which is not clear and
intelligible, is the worst of sermons : since, however trite
the matter, however vulgar the language, if it be under-
stood, something may still be gleaned from it.
II. The second essential of a good style, which I
pointed out, was purity, or elegance. The style of ser-
mons, I am ready to grant, ought to be suited in general
to the audience. But there is a certain style, which is
adapted to people of almost all descriptions ; that, I
mean, which equally avoids technical and affected ex-
pressions, and those which are mean and vulgar. In
pursuing this subject, that I may not fatigue the reader
with new distinctions, I shall follow the method which I
adopted in the former case, and shall first consider pu-
rity of style as relating to the choice of words ; and,
next, as to the arrangement of them.
The offences against purity of style, as far as respects
the choice of words, may be reduced to the following
heads. 1. Obsolete or uncommon expressions.* 2. Vul-
garisms. 3. Jargon, or cant.
* In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold ;
Alike fantastic, if too new or old.
Be not the first by whom the new are try'd,
yet the last to lay the old aside.
Ess. on CriL
382 ON THE COMPOSITION
1. In an age of novelty we have very little to appre-
hend from obsolete expressions. Scarcely any person,
who is at all conversant with polite company, would use
such expressions as behoof, behest, peradventure, sundry,
anon, &c. It is not a very easy matter to determine the
era of pure English ; but I think we should not look fur-
ther back than the revolution : Hooker, Bacon, Milton,
Hobbes, and even Temple, are scarcely to be consider-
ed as authorities in this respect.
Contrary to this, is the more fashionable error of using
affected language, and particularly Gallicisms. This na-
tion has been little indebted to the literature of France ;
and we have no occasion to change the bullion of our
language for the tinsel of theirs. Dr. Campbell has,
with great accuracy, collected a variety of these new
imported phrases, which he very properly calls, " stray
words, or exiles," that have no affinity to our language,
and indeed are no better than insects of the day. It is
of the utmost importance to literature to adopt some
standard of language ; there is no setting bounds to the
liberty of coining words, if it be at all admitted ; and, in
that case, the invaluable productions of our ancestors
will soon become totally unintelligible.
2. But the more dangerous vice, . because it is the
more common, and especially among the popular preach-
ers of the day. is vulgarity. Some instances of this, how-
ever, are to be found in very approved authors, and seem
to demonstrate how necessary it is to be on our guard
against it. Lord Kaims speaks of the comedies of Aris-
tophanes wallowing in looseness and detraction, (which
is moreover a false metaphor ; of " the pushing genius of
a nation ; of a nation being devoid of boivels," &c. The
following phrase is surely intolerably low for serious com-
DELIVERY OF A SERMON. 383
position : " To imagine that the gratifying of any sense,
or the indulging of any delicacy in meat, drink, or ap-
parel, is in itself a vice, can never enter into a head that
is not disordered, &c." Dr. Beattie is not free from
such expressions as " a longwinded rhetorician," " scream-
ing and squalling" &c. and Dr. Blair speaks of a circum-
stance popping out upon us ; of Milton having chalked out
a new road in poetry ; of Achilles pitching upon Briseis,
&c. Perhaps nothing but good books and good compa-
ny can purify the style from coarse and vulgar expres-
sions ; sometimes, indeed, the aptness of these words
renders it difficult to reject them. When, however, we
meet with a low word, we ought diligently to look for
one synonymous to it. It would probably be a very im-
proving exercise to make a collection as they occur, of
choice and elegant expressions, which may be employed
instead of the common and colloquial. Thus, for heap-
ing up, we may use ACCUMULATING ; for shunned, AVOIDED ;
for to brag, to BOAST ; for their betters their SUPERIORS
for I got rid of, I AVOIDED. A polite writer, instead of
saying he is pushed on, will say IMPELLED ; instead of go
forwards, or go on, PROCEED ; instead of you take me, you
UNDERSTAND ; instead of I had as lief, I should LIKE AS
WELL ; instead of a moot point, a DISPUTED point ; instead
of pro Sf con, on BOTH SIDES ; instead of by the bye, BY THE
WAY, (though I do not much like either ;) instead of shut
our ears, CLOSE our ears : instead of Jell to work, BEGAN.
Some words it will be better to omit ; as, instead of say-
ing, " he has a considerable deal of merit," say, " he has
considerable merit."
When an idiom can be avoided, and a phrase strictly
grammatical introduced, the latter will always be most,
graceful ; for instance, it is more elegant to say. " 1
384- ON THE COMPOSITION A8D
would rather," than " I had rather." This idiom protn
ably took its rise from the abbreviation P</, which in
conversation stands equally for I would, or I had.
When a substitute cannot be found for a mean word;
it is better to reform the sentence altogether, and to
express it by a periphrasis ; one such " fly will mar the
ointment" of the most harmonious periods.
3. Nothing, however, can be more opposite to puri-
ty or elegance of style, than the unmeaning jargon, which
low and illiterate preachers introduce^ sometimes in order
to assume an air of erudition.* Such phrases as creature-
ly comforts ; man-God ; everlasting ubiquity ; celestial pan-
oply ; Triune God ; &c. &c. are barbarisms not to be en-
dured. Indeed, were I to detail the instances of this de-
praved phraseology, I should scarcely be less disgusting
than those who employ it. Similar to these are the
endearing diminutives, the compound epithets, such as
life-giving, soul-saving, &c. and the fulsome repetition of
the most sacred names, introduced by some preachers*
Unaffected is an epithet, appropriated in a manner to real
devotion, which is displayed in actions, and in sentiments,
and not in words ; indeed 4. do not know, whether the
too frequent and familiar introduction of the most solemn
expressions, even in the pulpit, may not serve to lessen,
rather than to increase our respect for the great object
of Christian worship.
Purity of style, as far as respects arrangement, is equal-
ly violated by affected stateliness, and by negligence and
incorrectness. Of the former kind are the following in-
stances.
* There is a sort of divines, who, if they do but happen of an unlucky hard
word all the week, think, themselves not careful of their Sock, if they lay it not
up till Sunday, and bestow it among them in their next sermon.
EACHARD'S Contempt of the Clergy, p. 46.
DELIVERY OP A SERMON 385
1. Placing the nominative case after the verb. Ex.
" Wonderful are the effects of this passion in every view."
" Not a little elegant is this manner of writing."
2. The objective case in the beginning of the sentence.
" Varieties of national character we observe imprinted
on the physiognomy of nations." And not unlike this is
Mr. Gordon's very depraved construction in his transla-
tion of Tacitus ; "At this time war there was none."
3. The objective case before the imperative mood.
"How many nations have certainly fallen from that
importance, which they had formerly borne among
the societies of mankind, let the annals of the world de-
clare."
I know nothing that more enfeebles a style, than be-
ginning sentences with connective particles, such as and,
though, but, however, therefore, &c. It seems to put the
reader out of breath, and partakes in some measure of
the ungracefulness and confusion of long sentences. It
also destroys that compactness, which gives energy to
style. These circumstances have made it common to
introduce the connective as the second or third word of
the sentence : and the same reasons are almost equally
forcible against the use of relatives in the beginning of
sentences.
It has also been generally esteemed ungraceful to con-
clude a sentence with a preposition or a trifling word.
The auxiliary verbs are generally very bad conclusions.
Ex. "If this affects him, what must the first motion
of his zeal be ?"
Lastly. There is often inelegance in placing the ad-
verb before the auxiliary verb, as in the following in-
stance : " the question stated in the preceding chapter
49
386 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
never has been fully considered." It would, I think,
be better, " has never been fully, &c."
It would be impossible on this occasion to descend to
a very minute detail. A good ear, and the perusal of
good authors must unite to form a good taste in this
particular. Pedantry, however, more frequently mis-
leads us than any other cause. The style of female
writers flows easier, and is commonly more harmonious,
than that of professed scholars. One general rule may
indeed be admitted : in narrative or plain didactic com-
position, in those which are intended merely to convey
information, the natural order of the words is to be pre-
ferred ; but, when passion or sublimity is the object, this
order may be departed from, and a sentence must nev-
er conclude with a weak member or a trifling word.
As perspicuity demands that enough shall be displayed
in the first part of the sentence to make the aim of it
manifest ; so elegance and vivacity demand a degree of
energy at the termination of it in order to leave an im-
pression on the mind. Sometimes, however, in very an-
imated expression, it has a good effect to place the em-
phatic word the first in order, as ; Blessed is he " that
comet h in the name of the Lord." "Silver aud gold
have I none, but such as I have I give thee." In this
last sentence, the eager expectation, and the imploring
look of the beggar naturally lead to a vivid conception of
what was in his thoughts; and this conception is an-
swered by the form, in which the declaration of the
apostle is couched.
III. As a sermon is an oratorical composition, as it
is intended for a popular assembly, and ought to inter-
est the attention at least of the auditors, perspicuity and
purity of style are scarcely sufficient commendations.
DELIVERY OP A SERMON. 387
It should be calculated not only to instruct, but to per-
suade ; not only to inform the judgment ; but to concil-
iate the passions. Some degree of Rhetorical embellish-
ment, therefore, becomes absolutely necessary ; and it is
one of the most difficult points to determine the nature,
as well as the degree of this embellishment.
It is obvious that the ornaments of oratory are ma-
terially different from those of poetry. The aim of the
former is to inform and persuade ; of the latter to amuse.
The one addresses the judgment and the passions ; the
other, the fancy. The one requires the utmost perspi-
cuity ; in the other, some degree of obscurity is fre-
quently a beauty ; a different choice and selection of the
imagery and figures, which are employed, becomes
therefore requisite in these different forms of composi-
tion.
The elegance of poetry frequently depends upon
the happy application of imagery assumed from natural
objects ; the imagery proper for oratory is the imagery
of sentiment. In the one, the woods, the plains, the
fountains, and the hills, the expanded ocean, the sereni-
ty of the "heavens, are the most striking objects ; in the
other, the human passions and pursuits, the fate of em-
pires, the revolutions of fortune, and the uncertainty and
variation in human affairs.
The comparison, which is frequently one of the most
engaging figures in poetry, and affords the fullest scope
for luxuriant description, is in general too cold and form-
al for oratory. The beauty of metaphors will frequent-
ly be lost in an attention to the subject, or in the warmth
of the enunciation; and allusions and metonymies will
rather obscure than enlighten the subject. Personifica-
tion is still more allied to obscurity ; and aHlegary is least
388 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
adapted of all to this species of composition. Instead of
this play of the imagination, the orator must employ a
force and energy of expression, a warmth of sentiment,
and the stronger figures of iteration, erotesis, and climax*
In the use of these, however, he must be extremely
cautious ; for they are dangerous in 'the hands of the
unskilful, and require the nicest taste in the application
of them.
After all, it is a question, whether the modern com-
positions of the pulpit are not rather to be blamed for
too much than for too little affectation of ornament.f
In this case, perhaps, negative instruction may be the
most useful ; and to show what a style ought not to be,
may answer a better purpose, than an imperfect endeavr
our to describe all the excellencies and 'graces, which a
lively imagination and a fine taste may invent.
* The following is a fine instance of what 1 call thfc iteration, or repetition. " I
have slain, I have slain, not a Sp.Maelhis, who was suspected of aiming at the regal
power ; not a Tiberius Gracchus, who seditiously deposed his colleague from the,
magistracy ; but I have slain the man, whose adulteries our noblest matrons dis-
covered in the sacred recesses of the gods ; the man, by whose punishment the sen-
ate so frequently determined to espiate the violation of the most solemn rites ; the
man. who by the hands of his slaves expelled a citizen, who was esteemed by the
senate, by the people, by every nation on earth, the preserver of the city; the man,
who gave and took away kingdoms, and distributed the world at his pleasure ;
the man, who defiled the forum with blood ; the man, who fired the temple of
the nymphs ; in a word, the man, who governed himself by no principle, who ac-
knowledged no law, who submitted to no limitation." Cic. pro Milonc. The
writings of St. Paul abound in these bold figures, particularly the erotesis, of
which there are some uncommonly animated examples ; " What ! have ye not
houses to eat and to drink in ? or despise ye the church of God, and shame them
that have not? What shall I say to you ? Shall I praise you in" this ? I praise you
cot." 1 COR. xi. 22. The following is an example of the three figures united ;
" Are they Hebrews ? so am I. Are they Israelites ? so am I. Are they the
seed of Abraham? so am I. Are they ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool,)
I am more," &c. 2 Con. xi. 22, 23.
t "The ornaments of language generally cost the writer much trouble, and
produce small advantage to the hearer. Let the character of your sermons be
truth and information, and a decent particularity." PALEY'S Ordin. Serm,
DELIVERY OP A SERMON. 389
In the first place the popular harangues of the day
have more of poetry* than of oratory in them, if false
metaphor, inconsistent allegory, and in all respects
" prose run mad," can have any claim to that appella-
tion. Not satisfied with adopting whimsical allusions,
they pursue them to an extreme of absurdity.
" And ductile dulness new meanders makes,
" And one poor word a thousand senses takes."!
It can be no gratification to a rational mind to give pain,
otherwise I could furnish specimens of this kind abun-
dantly ridiculous.^ Figures, which have no ingenuity to
recommend them, but are trite and common, ought care-
fully to be avoided.
* " Another thing, that brings great disrespect and mischief upon the clergy,
is their packing their sermons so full of similitudes ; which all the world know,
carry with them but very small force of argument, unless there be an exact agree-
ment with that which is compared; of which there is very seldom any sufficient
care taken." EACHARD'S Contempt, Sic. p. 58.
t " This is almost the perpetual vice of mean and low preachers ; for, when
they catch a figurative word, or a metaphor, as when GOD'S word is called a
fire, or a sword, or the church a house, c. they never fail to make a long detail
of conformities between the figures and the subjects themselves, and frequently
say ridiculous things." ROBINSON'S Claude, c. ii.
$ It would be no very difficult matter to parallel the following specimens,
which Dr. Eachard has quoted from the popular orators of his day.
" 'Tis reported of a tree growing upon the bank of the Euphrates, that it
brings forth an apple, to the eye very fair and tempting, but inwardly it is filled
with nothing but useless and deceitful dust. Dust we are, and to dust we must
all go." Contempt of the Clergy, p. 62.
"I cannot omit that of the famous divine, who, advising the people in days of
danger to run unto the Lord, tells them, that they cannot go to the Lord, much
less run without feet ; there are therefore two feet to run to the Lord,/at/7i and
prayer. 'Tis plain that faith is a foot ; for, by faith we stand. 2 Cor. i. g4.
The second is prayer, a spiritual leg to bear us thither ; now, that prayer is a
spiritual leg, appears from several places of Scripture, as from JONAH, c. ii. v.
7. and my prayer came unto thy holy temple," &c. Ib. p. 70.
Upon the text, MATT. iv. 25. and there followed him great multitudes of peo-
ple from GALILEE. " I discover," (says the preacher,) " when JESUS prevails
with us, we shall soon leave our GALILEES. I discover also (says he) a great
miracle, viz. that the way after JESUS being ulrnit. that such a multitude should
follow him." ' Ib. p. 84,
390 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
Secondly. One of the most glaring vices of bad or-
ators is the exclamation : " Oh !* my beloved Chris-
tians!" "Ah! my dear hearers !" "How delightful! how
enlivening ! how wonderful ! how stupendous !" Such un-
meaning phrases as these fill up all the blanks of their dis-
courses, and stand in the place of sense and sentiment ; to
the critical eye, however, they never fail to discover " the
nakedness of the land," and to exhibit the preacher la-
bouring at a strain of pathos, which he is not able to ef-
fect. There is no figure, which is so nearly allied to the
frigid as this. It was therefore never admitted by the
Greeks, and very rarely by the Roman orators. It
never appears in the discourses of Barrow, of Sherlock,
and of Atterbury. Whether our popular preachers
have improved upon these models or not, the reader will
be at no loss to determine.
Thirdly. It is a poor expedient, and frequently bor-
ders on the ridiculous, to introduce the interlocutors in a
sermon, and make speeches for the different characters.
This artifice is generally adopted in order to display the
theatrical gesture, and versatile talents of the preacher.
It is impossible to see a good religious face-maker (as they
are termed by the sagacious Dr. Eachard) perform one
of these pulpit farces, without thinking of the strolling
player in Scarron, who acted a whole play himself, only
varying his position, attitude and voice, according as he
represented the King, the Queen, or the Ambassador.
* There is not a word in the whole compass of the English language to which
the popular preacher is under so many obligations as this small interjection. It
intrudes itself upon all occasions, and if uttered with a proper vociferation, and
a smart thump upon the breast, seldom fails to be followed by a reasonable num-
ber of groans and sighs from a certain part of the congregation. To every per-
son, however, of taste and reflection, it only indicates a wish to be pathetic with-
out the power of being so. This is' not the oratory of Mr. Fox, Mr. Burke or Mr.
Sheridan.
DELIVERY OF A SERMON. 391
These minor orations are commonly very dull para-
phrases of some animated passage of Holy Writ, and are
sometimes no less inconsistent with decorum, than with
the rules of chaste composition.
A fourth device of these flimsy orators, when in a
strait for matter or sentiment, (which is often the case,)
is to force in a huge scripture quotation ; no matter how
foreign to the general subject of the discourse ; it has an
air of piety, and therefore generally imposes on the
well-meaning, but undiscerning, part of the audience.
Young orators are generally fond of the sublime to a
degree of enthusiasm, and are too apt to affect it when
least qualified. They are therefore very liable to devi-
ate into bombast. The marking characters of the bom-
bastic, or false sublime, are : 1st. Words without a dis-
tinct appropriate meaning, which the author himself
probably could not define, if he were called upon to do
it. 2dly. Descriptions, which cannot be reduced to can-
vass, which exhibit no distinct and uniform picture. 3dly.
Similes and figures disproportioned to the subject. 4thly.
An abundance of redundant, and unmeaning epithets.
An error apparently opposite to this, but frequently
united with it, is the feeble style. The characters of this
are : 1st. Loose and disjointed sentences, without point
or conclusion. 2dly. Common-place imagery and ex-
pressions. 3dly. Colloquial expressions : as, " Well,
but says some objector," &c.
One of the most common and the most dangerous
errors, however, is the mock pathos. Many (I doubt
not well-intentioned) persons conceive that they are to
go to church for nothing but to weep ; and the pitiful
methods employed by some preachers to excite their
tears cannot fail to have a direct contrary effect with
392 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
every rational person.* I am sensible that much will,
in this case, depend upon the acting of a sermon, (as Dr.
Warburton calls it.) I could mention a popular preach-
er, who regularly weeps at a certain period of his dis-
course, whether the subject be pathetic or not. The
device generally succeeds with that part of the audience
(and that is a pretty considerable portion) who pay
no attention to the matter, and regard only the gesticu-
lation of the preacher. This religious buffoonery, how-
ever, must necessarily disgust every judicious hearer;
and the censure of one person of sense is, in my opinion,
but weakly counterbalanced by the overflowing scale of
vulgar popularity,
Y.
OF MANNER, OR DELIVERY* -
In treating of manner, I shall endeavour to contract
this dissertation within still narrower limits than I have
done on the preceding topics : and for this plain reason,
that I conceive it to be the least necessary.
More attention has lately been lavished upon this art,
than upon the more substantial objects of criticism ; and,
after all, the careful observation of good speakers will
do more than all the abstract study in the world.
Speaking is a practical art, and we might as well pre-
tend to teach a young person to dance, as to speak, by
books only.
The principal points to be observed on this subject,
are modulation, emphasis, and action. .
* " A lady asked a certain great person coming out of church, whether it
were not a very moving discourse? Yes, said he, J was extremely sorry; for the
man is my friend, Swift's Let. to a Young Clergyman-
UELIVEflY OF A SERMON, 393
First, with respect to modulation. It is evident, that
the voice naturally assumes a different tone on different
V
occasions. In common conversation, and HI narrativej
the voice flows in an even tenor, often approaching to
monotony. In teaching or explaining, it is slower, more
distinct, something more energetic, and rather less in-
clining to monotony. In extremes of passion, it is une-
qual, tremulous, and frequently interrupted. The great
excellence of art is to reduce those observations, with
which we are furnished by nature* to a regular system;
and to produce on all occasions, what nature will do in
its most perfect state,
The modulation suitable to the pulpit will b'e suffi-
ciently apparent from these considerations. That vio-
lence of passion, which it is the excellence of a player
to imitate, cannot possibly have any place there. The
preacher's business is to argue, to convinces to persuade,
not to storm or rage at his congregation. The raving
and furious manner of some preachers may indeed, by
mere dint of lungs, keep a congregation from dozing, but
can neither inform nor conciliate any person of true taste
or real piety.
From the nature of his office, from the nature of his
composition, the preacher should always, in his enuncia*
tion, study " to beget a temperance that may give it a
smoothness." Nothing can compensate for the loss of
dignity ; and the strong, energetic, yet temperate and
even manner, is alone consistent with true dignity.
Above all things, the young preacher ought most
carefully to avoid an unnatural or affected tone. At a
period, when, from the frequency of theatrical exhibi-
^tions, the taste of the public, witji respect to speaking,
is much improved, such a defect will scarcely escape the
50
394 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
censure of even the ignorant and vulgar. In fact, I nev-
er knew of but one instance to the contrary. I remem-
ber, some years ago, in a considerable town in the North
of England, a person offered himself as a candidate for
a living, who performed the service in a tone of voice,
which could only be compared to very bad chanting ;
it savoured indeed more of the synagogue than of the
cathedral ; and the composition of his sermon was as un-
intelligible as his manner was extraordinary. The ju-
dicious electors, because the exhibition was uncommon,
concluded that it must be something remarkably fine.
They afterwards accidentally discovered their mistake,
but not till it was too late to rectify it.
Secondly. It is obvious, that every person, in discours-
ing earnestly upon any subject, usually marks, by a cer-
tain force or inflexion of voice, the significant and ener-
getic words and expressions ; and, both the number of
those expressions, and the force with which they are
enunciated, increase in proportion to the passion or ve-
hemence of the speaker.
EMPHASIS is either absolute or relative. Absolute
emphasis depends upon the subject, and consists in lay-
ing a stress upon such words, as we would wish to be
particularly marked, and remembered ; such as are di-
rectly connected with the sense of the whole ; and on
which it seems, in some degree, to depend.
Relative emphasis has a respect to something imme-
diately going before or coming after, on which the sense
of the sentence depends. The whole point and force
of the following sentence would be lost by a wrong em-
phasis : " Philosophy alone can boast, (and perhaps it is
only the boast of pliilosophy,) that her gentle hand is,
able to eradicate from the human mind the latent and
DELIVERY OP A SERMON. 395
deadly principle of fanaticism." " Another servant, be-
ing his kinsman, whose ear Peter cut off ;" here, unless
a proper emphasis be laid, there will be some room for
supposing, that the servant was the kinsman of Peter,
and that he was actually the person, whose ear had been
cut off. In the following lines, much obscurity may be
produced by an improper emphasis :
" If clouds or earthquakes break not heaven's design,
" Why then a Borgia or a Calaline . ? "
Unless the reader remembers, that the word should is
understood, and reads the verses accordingly, the audi-
tors might suppose the latter line to relate merely to
the existence of a Borgia, &c.*
Sometimes half a sentence is emphatic with respect
to the rest. Ex. " The odia in longum jacens, I thought
had belonged only to the worst character of antiquity."
Unless each of these latter words be pronounced with
equal force, the sense of the author will be destroyed,
as will be evident by placing the emphasis on either
worst or antiquity, and comparing it with the context.
The great use of emphasis is to render a discourse
plain and intelligible to the auditors ; and, consequently,
that emphasis is most judicious, which is most discrimin-
ative. For this reason, I disagree with both Mr. Gar-
rick and Dr. Johnson in their mode of accenting the lat-<
o
ter commandments of the Decalogue. " Thou shalt not
steal," for instance. Here Mr. Garrick placed the em"
phasis upon the auxiliary verb, shalt, which was evident-
* If the great convulsions of nature, says Mr. Pope in this couplet, do not
interrupt the order of Almighty providence, why should it be interrupted by the
convulsions of the moral world ; why should a Borgia or a Cataline not make a
part of the plan and order of divine government, as much as those natural phe-
nomena, the causes of which are now well understood, and which are known to
Tie perfectly consistent with the general laws of nature ?
39 1) ON THE COMPOSITION AND
ly wrong, as Dr. Johnson objected that the command-
ment was negative ; and he accordingly placed the em-
phasis upon not. It is plain, however, that this empha-
sis neither serves to explain the nature of the command-
ment, nor to point the attention to its principal object.
The congregation are sufficiently aware, that the Dec^
alogue consists of authoritative precepts, and therefore
there cannot be the least necessity for dwelling upon the
yerb shalt ; most of the commandments are of a nega-
tive kind, and of course there can be no occasion to make
not the principal word in the sentence ; and that, too,
with a manifest risk that the principal object of the com-
mandment shall not be heard, or at least not attended
to. Besides this, we are so accustomed to what I call
relative emphasis, that, by accenting either of those
words, the ear is naturally led to expect something cor-
respondent to them : thus, by saying " Thou shalt not
steal," the auditor is induced to expect the antithetical
&M?, with some correspondent appendage. The truth is,
both these words should be pronounced with a full tone
of voice ; but, the real force of the emphasis ought to
rest upon the word steal, or whatever word particularly
distinguishes the commandment from the rest.
Thirdly. On the subject of ACTION, I find much to
reprehend in most preachers, and I might add in most
players also. The most general vice is unmeaning a&-
tion. Mr. Garrick used less action than any performer
I ever saw ; but his action had always some meaning, it
always spoke ; and, by making use of less than other
actors, it perhaps had the greater force.
In this case, some respect must be had to the char r
acter of the nation, which is gravity ; some respect must
be had to that which the speaker assumes ; and a.
DELIVERY OP A SERMON. 397
preacher of the gospel is certainly the gravest of char*-
acters. Much action is expressive of levity, and there-
fore altogether inconsistent with both these circumstan-
ces. Besides, action is in general expressive of great
passion, and therefore cannot be required, or even ex-
pected in a public speaker, whose business is only to
teach or to explain.
Some kinds of action are in themselves ungraceful.
I have seen one preacher, whose hands were constantly
employed, as if he were engaged in the occupation -of a
grave digger; and another, who seemed perpetually
hammering nails into the pulpit, I know no attitude
so completely disgusting as what I call the spread-
eagle attitude, with both wings elevated as if in the ac-
tion of flying ; and I have heard of a certain preacher,
who was ludicrously compared to a tea-pot, from the af-
fected position in which he commonly addressed the
multitude.
The meanest species of buffoonery is that of acting
your words ; and yet I have known this practice confer
some degree of popularity. To understand perfectly
the absurdity of it, it is only necessary to observe it in
excess. What should we think of the person, for m-
stance, who, in reading the following lines, should think
proper to represent the actions which they describe ?
" Did some more sober critic come abroad,
" If wrong, I smiPd; if right, I kissed the rod."
Or if, in reading the introductory sentence of the Com-
mon Prayer, " Rend your hearts, and not your garments"
a clergyman were to mimic these actions, should we not
think he meant to ridicule either the liturgy or the con-
gregation ? Depend upon it, it is not less essentially ab-
surd ? and only differs in degree, when the preacher,
398 ON THE COMPOSITION AND
eiy time the heart is mentioned, claps his hand to his
breast ; or, if he reads " the heavens declare the glory of
GOD," thinks it necessary to raise his arm, as if pointing
to a sign post.
Every thing like affectation ought to be cautiously
avoided.* If a preacher can unite good sense arid piety
with a style tolerably smooth and harmonious; if his
voice be not harsh or disgusting ; and if his delivery be
easy and unembarrassed, he will find no need of flourish-
es to render himself agreeable. Few can excel in the
higher requisites of oratory ; few can be fine speakers ;
but all may be correct and agreeable speakers, if the.y
will not be too ambitious of being fine speakers. If an
orator once lose sight of nature, no exertion of art can
compensate for the deviation.
It has been frequently debated, whether a sermon
may be delivered to most advantage, perfectly extem-
pore, from memory, or from written notes. I have tried
all these methods ; and, from repeated experience, I do
not hesitate to give the preference to the last. In speak-
ing extempore, the mind is too intent upon the matter
and the language, to attend to the manner ; and, though
the emphasis will in general be right, this is more than
counterbalanced by the defects in modulation, and by
the want of that harmonious and full conclusion of the
periods, which may be effected, when we are previously
acquainted with the extent of the sentence. In deliver-
ing a composition by rote, the memory is so much upon
the stretch, that a degree of embarrassment necessari-
ly ensues. The success of the actors, I am aware, will
* " Off come the gloves : and, the hands being well chafed, he shrinks up
his shoulders, and stretches forth himself as if he were going to cleave a bullock's
head, or rive the body of an oak." Eachard^s Contempt of the Clergy.
DELIVERY OP A SERMON. 399
form a strong objection to this observation ; but, let it
be remembered, the speeches, which they have to com-
mit to memory, are so short, that they will not bear any
comparison with the delivery of a long and complex
piece of composition; not to mention the aids, which
they receive from what is called the cue, or the respon-
ses of the other characters, and from the constant atten-
tion of the prompter.
It was my intention to have concluded with a criti-
cal examination of the most approved specimens extant
in this species of composition ; but I find I have already
exceeded my limits, and, I fear, have exhausted the pa-
tience of the reader. Indeed I have been compelled,
for the sake of brevity, to omit several remarks, which
might have been useful to some, and acceptable to many
persons ; and have confined myself to what I esteemed
absolutely necessary.
A LETTER
THE ART OF PREACHING.
TRANSLATED PROM M. REYBAZ.
51
LETTER
ON
THE ART OF PREACHING.
040-
BEING about to take upon yourself the office of a
Preacher of the Gospel, you solicit my advice, which I
consider as a proof, that you feel the difficulties attend-
ant upon what you are going to perform. How many
young Preachers do we see, who have received no pre-
vious instructions and who have not, it may be presum-
ed, considered instruction necessary ; presenting them-
selves, with confidence before a public assembly ! The
modesty, which characterises you, is an omen of your
success, and you deserve a more able guide, than my
knowledge and abilities allow me to be.
As you, have resolved to adopt the ecclesiastical vo-
cation, you have, doubtless, made a previous investiga-
tion of your resources, and compared your several fac-
ulties, not with those of persons, whose lives have been
devoted to their profession, but with those which the
discharge of the duty requires. You have also, I trust,
compared the importance of the wofk, with the powers
of your mind ; remembering, that you should not under-
take any engagement without having first ascertained
your capability to fulfil it.
404 ON THE ART OF PREACHING.
Few vocations require such an union of talents, as
that of a minister of the gospel. It calls forth every en-
dowment of the mind, all the faculties of the soul, and
the most attractive gracefulness of the body. Of these
several powers, some are more essential than others;
some are so indispensably necessary, that a young man
is unpardonable, if he engage in this work of the Lord,
without them.
If our studies have been well directed ; if we have
profited by application ; and if we are ambitious to dis-
tinguish ourselves in our profession ; it is quite sufficient
to have been born with common abilities, to possess the
qualities of mind requisite for a preacher. A certain
flow of ideas, and a perfect knowledge of the holy scrip-
tures, is the effect of mature study. One view of a sub-
ject will discover what it principally contains, to form
the basis of a discourse ; and a knowledge of logic will
teach you to make an happy decision, and just arrange-
ment. There is not a man, devoted, in any degree, to
his calling, who cannot, with care and labour, compose
a sermon, which, if not eloquent, will, at least, be useful
and edifying.
A knowledge of the human heart is just as necessa-
ry to a preacher, as that of the holy scriptures. The
human heart is a difficult book, and if we do not read,
carefully, every page, we ought, at least, to study the
principal chapters : it will prevent us from erring, by
describing an imaginary, in the place of a real, being,
and will supply us with that information, which will ena-
ble us to know, what is of all things the most difficult ;
ourselves.
For want of society, which is, in this respect, the
best school for a preacher, but which we cannot always
ON THE ART OP PREACHING. 405
frequent, he should study the most celebrated moralists :
let him, above all, read that celebrated orator, Massil-
lon, from whom nothing that concerned the human heart
was concealed. I am not ashamed to recommend to his
perusal, works of imagination, which are distinguished
by purity of morals, and detail of character, designed at
once, to interest the affections, and improve the under-
standing.
There is not a subject within the sphere of an ora-
tor, which does not demand a certain diversity of
thoughts, the solution of which requires care and exer-
cises judgment, together with an order and method, in
the arrangement of them. There is, moreover, a cer-
tain quality, valuable in itself, and indispensable to an
orator, which animates and inspires all his discourses,
and which displays its intuitive power more fully in some
persons than others ; this quality is inherent in the soul ;
it cannot be acquired by diligence : I describe it in one
word sensibility.
If an orator has not sensibility, he cannot attain the
highest end of his labours, which is to affect the heart,
while he informs the understanding. There is no emo-
tion produced by eloquence, which does not spring from
sensibility. It was that which inspired Fenelon, Bossu-
et, Flechier, Massillon, Saurin, the Abbe Poul, in some
of their finest passages. He, who is so phlegmatic, as
always to leave his hearers unaffected, is in want of an
oratorical requisite, for which no learning can atone, and
which no diligence will supply.
What then shall we say of those preachers, who,
far from transforming into sentiment, the abstract prin-
ciples of morality, even speak in the language of meta-
physics ? Would an orator, endowed with sensibility,
406 ON THE ART OF PREACHING.
pursue so inefficacious a mean of edification ? Be a phi-
losopher; but in discourses from the pulpit, assume
neither the tone, nor the language, of philosophy.
Sensibility, it is to be observed, has its degrees, and
may increase by exercise. Thus, I would not prevent a
man from becoming a preacher, because he discovers no
more than a spark of it, or because his attempt to in-
troduce it into his discourses is feeble, and in consequence
unsuccessful. It is sufficient to be not absolutely devoid
of sensibility, provided we can by the force of applica-
tion, excite in ourselves a certain degree of energy.
For that purpose, shun those exhibitions, which harden
the heart ; frequent no spectacles, which do not give
soft impressions ; let your time be employed in that
course of reading, which inspires virtue, whose natural
delineations affect the breast with gentle emotions, with-
out rending it. When this power has taken possession
of the heart, it will show itself in your public discours-
es. You have then only to yield to its impressions ; and
when you come to deliver your subject from the pulpit,
your enunciation, while it evinces your meaning, will
communicate your portion of sensibility to your auditory.
In order that your sermons may produce the effect
intended by them, you must endeavour to rehearse them
from memory. Have you then a memory- adapted to
that purpose ? Can you, without occupying too much
time, and giving too great diligence, learn your sermon,
so as to deliver it with ease, and repeat it without em-
barrassment ? Memory is, like sensibility, strengthened
by exercise. I know it. You cannot have finished your
academical studies, without having frequently exerted
your memory, and tried its power. You can, therefore,
ON THE ART OP PREACHING. 407
form, in this respect, a tolerably competent judgment of
yourself.
If your memory be treacherous, and you cannot de-
pend upon it ; how will you be distinguished in a pro-
fession, of which it a principal requisite ? If you at-
tempt to repeat your sermon, and do not perfectly re-
collect it, you occasion great distress to your audience :
and how can you give that freedom to your utterance,
and that action to your elocution, which are indispensa-
ble towards producing a high effect ? If you hesitate^
you deprive your delivery of the advantages it has over
reading. In that case, rather read, than attempt to re-
peat ) or, I would say, rather give up the pulpit forever,
where there is a barrier to your success, and which, if
you have any attachment to your profession, or respect
for yourself, will produce in you only uneasiness and
mortification.*
But in vain do you possess an unruffled memory, if
your audience lose any parts of your discourse, through
the weakness of the organ which is to transmit it to
them. A clear, loud voice, which can, without straining
or effort, be distinctly heard by a numerous assembly, is
a happy and an invaluable quality in an orator. A pow-
erful voice commands the attention, and prevents the
distraction of mind, which is, alas ! too prevalent in the
best disposed congregations. It is not only requisite s
* To address the congregation, is the mode of speaking both the most
pleasing and useful to the auditory, and at the same time, the most natural and
satisfactory to the orator ; by which, I mean, the directing his voice both to the
right and left ; to be able to do this oratorically, he must know his sermon
thoroughly, and by glancing his eye upon it, as he turns his head from one side
to the other for there should be scarce any motion of his person he will have
the appearance of repeating, while he possesses the advantage of frequent re-
course to his manuscript.
408 ON THE ART OP PREACHING.
that every individual should, without being eagerly in-
tent, and throughout every part of the church, hear the
preacher ; but it is also requisite, that it should be im-
possible not to hear him ; and that the sound should be
clear and full, even when he is giving the utmost melo-
dy to his periods.
It is not always that a voice is of sufficient extent,
and it is not always that a public speaker is an orator.
It has happened to me, more than once, to have been
present at a sermon, and not to have heard it : many
others were in the same predicament. What signified
it, therefore, whether the sermon was good or bad ?
The preacher may, under shelter of one defect, conceal
many.
Monotony is one of the natural and unhappy attend-?
ants upon a feeble enunciation. The orator, possessing
only a small compass of voice, cannot vary his cadence.
It is still worse if he make any efforts to be heard : he
then does not speak ; he only squeaks ; his voice be-
comes unnatural ; he has only one tone, and it offends
the ear.
Exercise it is said, strengthens the voice, gives it
power and extent ; this is true, when the weakness is in
the organ only ; when the voice wants merely to be ex-
erted, and to have a more ample range. But if this de-
fect, as it often happens, arises from the lungs, it cannot
be overcome, except at the risque of one's health, or, it
may be of life.
The chief means of remedying the weakness of the
organs, is to articulate very distinctly. Clearness of
pronunciation will contribute to make you heard more
than the greatest exertion of voice ; the syllables should,
in succession, strike the ear, and this should be the ob-
ON THE ART OF PREACHING; 409
ject of unceasing attention. You will form a very erro-
neous judgment, if you take the tone of familiar conversa-
tion as a rule for a public discourse. In the one case, you
speak, if I may be allowed the expression, to the ear of
your htearer, and nothing escapes him ; in the other$ the
word has to find his ear ^to reach him at the extremi-
ties of a large building ; feeble sounds never arrive there ;
and if even the pronunciation is not unusually distinct no-
thing is heard in the remote parts of the church, but
sounds, which are altogether inarticulate.
Clearness of pronunciation is, to the ear, what clear-
ness of perception is to the mind ; we must express our-
selves without embarrassment, to be heard ; and we may
apply to the delivery of a discourse, what Quintilian said
of the discourse itself; prima virtus orationis perspicuitas.
I suppose then, you possess those elemental qualities
I have briefly mentioned, and which constitute the very
first principles of elocution ; you are now about to com-
mence your vocation.
Do you know, my friend y how to read ? This ques-
tion may astonish you ; but you may have read a great
deal, without knowing how to read. There are some
preachers, who, arrived at old age, have read all their
life, and who are, themselves^ the evidences, that good
reading is very rare.
To read, is not to collect letters and syllables ; it is
not to pronounce words and .sentences: it is to express
the sense of these sentences ; it is to represent the
thoughts of a discourse, in their appropriate colours.
It is to blend the different passages, in such a manner as
not to injure each other ; but, on the contrary, to give
to each mutual strength and assistance. It is to distin-
guish, by the accent, what is only argumentative, from
52
410 ON THE ART OF PREACHING.
what is pathetic and oratorical ; it is to discern any im-
portant ena in a sentence, in order to detach it from
the rest, and express it without affectation, and without
the appearance of design ; it is to convey the idea, rather
than the expressions, the sentiments rather than the
words ; it is to follow the impulse of the discourse, in such
a manner, that the delivery may be quick or slow, mild
or impetuous, according to the emotions it should excite.
To read, is to express, hy variations of voice, the
comforts arising from the consciousness of innocence, and
the horrors, from the instigations of vice ; the warmth
of zeal, and coolness of indifference ; indignation, fear,
pity, and benevolence ; the blessings and chastisements
of God ; the pride and misery of man ; the supplications
to the Supreme Being, and the pathetic exhortations to
sinful men. In short, to read, is to distinguish our sev-
eral thoughts and sentiments, by inflections of voice,
which should, at once, describe their meaning, and im-
press their power.
When you have got the better, if it be possible, of
all provincial accent, and your pronunciation is pure and
correct ; when you have accustomed yourself to read
aloud, with feeling, and varying your tones, in such a
way, that what you read, may be well understood ; then,
progressively, raise your voice, three or four notes high-
er than the common tone ; and do not appear in the
pulpit, until you have many times repeated this useful
experiment.
Timidity, when its influence is greatly predominant,
disconcerts ; it prevents the exertion of talent. On the
other hand, presumptuous confidences prejudices an au-
ditory against the speaker, who should, by all means, pre-
possess their good-will. Keep then, a wise mean. Ap-
ON THE ART , OF PREACHING. 411
pear, at least, to entertain a very modest opinion of
yourself, which, has always the effect of disarming criti-
cism, and conciliating the esteem of a congregation. I
have seen preachers, who, to practise a little deceit on
themselves, and thereby shun the distractions which
their timidity might occasion, fix their eyes on a pillar
of the church,* and address their discourse, exclusively,
to it. This mode of speaking is not judicious. The
preacher loses by it all the warmth of his zeal, and de-
stroys the effect of the expression of countenance. It is
the assembly he ought to look in the face. To them he
proposes his questions ; to them he addresses the rea-
soning of his propositions, the gentleness of his reproofs,
and the earnestness of his exhortations. It is the assem-
bly which animates the orator, which inspires him with
suitable tones, and with a pleasing cadence. How,
without looking continually around him, can he perceive,
whether the attention of his congregation is supported,
or relaxed ? And how can he again attract it, when it
has been suffered to escape, but by redoubled zeal, and
a more impassioned address ?
Scarcely has the preacher opened his mouth than a
religious fascination inspires the audience. He is no
longer an ordinary person. He is an heavenly ambas-
sador, invested with divine authority ; his language, his
accents, assume a more grave and solemn character than
those of a mere man. Happy, if nothing throughout the
discourse happen to dissipate the illusion, and divert the
attention of the auditory !
* When a Clergyman preaches in a Church, with which he is not at all
acquainted, to direct his voice, at the beginning of his sermon, to a distant ob-
ject, is not injudicious. Dr. Hinchliffe, the late bishop of Peterborough, always
did so, and he was, during his life, considered one of the . best preachers in the
church of England.
412 ON THE ART OF PREACHING.
You comprehend that it is not necessary, in the ex*
ordium of your discourse, to give yourself up to decla-
mation. If you except these cases when the preacher
seems overcome with a thought which prepossesses him ;
when he communicates to his auditory, a powerful im-
pulse, the effect of his preceding meditations; except, I
say, these cases, which are rare, you should enter on
your discourse with composure, elegance, and simplicity.
We see preachers who seem to be exhausted with
their exordium. They elevate their voice to the high-
est pitch at the very commencement. Did that exordir
urn constitute the whole of the sermon, they would not
be reprehensible; but it is only an introduction; and
when they come to the main point of the subject, they
are not able to support the power with which they set
out ; and their discourse appears like a monster, with
a large head and a meagre body.
Let the mildness of your exordium prescribe to you
the^proper tone in which it requires to be delivered.
Your guarded gesture should correspond with it, and all
action should be restrained. An exordium, indeed, is
not always necessary ; sometimes a preacher enters on
the subject without a previous introduction.
I do not hesitate to prefer, in a sermon, divisions
formally announced, to those which are only intimated
by transitions, in the arrangement of the discourse.
This last method, is doubtless, the most oratorical, but,
certainly, not the best adapted to assist the memory of
those, who pay little attention.
In printed discourses J prefer divisions, rather impli-
ed than expressed, where the reader can review the
plan, which the author has traced. Whereas, in a dis-
course, which is to be delivered ? clear divisions are ne
ON THE ART OF PREACHIJfG. 413
cessary, for the sake of remembering what has been
spoken. It is the handle of a vase, in the taking hold
of which, every thing it contains, goes with it ; but if it
has no handle, and is out of our reach, its contents are
lost to us.
After having fixed the attention of your audience on
the plan you propose to follow, you then fully open
your discourse, and pass, by means of transition, from
one point to another.
It is by incorporating argument and eloquence, doc-
trine and exhortation, precept and address, that you are
enabled to vary your delivery ; if, at least, your mode
of speaking corresponds to your plan of composition.
Most of the French Catholic preachers are full of fire ;
but as they begin they conclude ; the whole discourse
is a constant peroration.* Let me not be mistaken ;
atone always exalted; a severe system of morality;
singularity of sentiment, and extravagance of hyperbole,
are only the characters of vehemence, and by no means
denote the excellence of the preacher. I would rather
undo, than overdo, the thing: what does not attain the
proposed end, is but feeble ; what exceeds it, is ridicu-
lous.
There are some cases in the delivery, where the
manner of speaking depends entirely on the preceding
parts. After, for instance, some very vehement passa-
ges, the more tranquil should gradually abate of their
force ; the waves of an agitated sea do not calm imme-
diately, although the wind ceases.
* Notwithstanding this censure passed upon the Catholic preachers, sure I
am, that their Sermons, if judiciously abridged, and adapted to an English
Protestant congregation, would produce the highest effects. The preacher, who
would thus prepare them, would, I doubt not, have an auditory, both increasing;
in numbers, and improving in morals.
414 ON THE ART OP PREACHING.
Would you be indeed distinguished ; be simply ele-
gant, and uniformly proper ; be calm, in general, in or-
der to be vehement, when the juncture shall arrive.
Reserve your oratorical powers for the conclusion of
your discourse, when you apply more particularly to
your audience, the general truths, which you have been
propounding.
In avoiding monotony, that is, a tone uniformly the
same, be careful not to fall into what is called a whine
or cant, which is still more insupportable than monotony
itself. This whine or cant, consists in the use of two or
three tones, which return in the same order, and ter-
minate by the same fall ; the preacher acquires these
bad habits, when the weakness of his voice forbids the
variety of necessary tones, or when habit takes the
place of sense, and of earnestness. This fault is tolera-
ble to an audience, and not unfrequently, renders preach-
ing useless.
I much wish that young preachers would not neglect
any means of forming their voice, and improving their
ear. Some knowledge of vocal music* would be very
useful to them ; the practice of it would acquaint them
with many secrets.
What I remark on the voice, may, in many respects,
be said of action. It ought to be just, expressive, sim-
ple, and at the same time varied. But what gives ex-
pression to action ? What are its defects and qualities ?
Are there any rules to follow concerning it ? We have
no fixed model to consult, as we have on written elo-
* I once heard the following remark made by a clergyman, who is an orna-
ment to his profession, and it is consonant to general observation ; " The re-
commendation of vocal music seems equivocal, and is not founded on experience,
since I have known the finest singers and players, unable to read well, and on the
contrary, excellent readers make very bad singers."
ON THE ART OP PREACHING. 415
quence. We must collect transient observations, and
determine between disputed principles.
Action is indispensably necessary in the art of ora-
, tory ; it is dictated by feeling, emotion, and zeal, and is
not always regulated without difficulty. Observe the
drawings of great painters, in their representation of the
action, which they give to persons. Junius, in his trea-
tise on the painting of the ancients, says, that the hands
assist the words, that they can demand, promise, call,
detest, interrogate, refuse, and declare the different af-
fections of the soul. Action is the means by which the
dumb make themselves understood : by it they express
all their sentiments, and convey all their thoughts.
Gesture is very common and familiar to persons, who
are quick and lively ; it is less so with sedate and quiet
people. The Italians use much gesticulation when they
speak ; it is not the case with the inhabitants of the
more nothern countries. In France, where exterior
appearance is so much studied, good taste suppresses all
gesture ; the women, especially, who pass for the most
accomplished, absolutely renounce it, finding, no doubt,
that it is much easier to abstain from, than to regulate
it. Their conversation would, in consequence, appear
uninteresting, did they not supply the place of action,
by a cadence in their speech, and an ease in their de-
portment.
An orator without action, would deprive himself of
one great means of persuasion and effect ; his eloquence
would be unaffecting, and would be destitute both of its
charms and power.
Gesture should not approach to pantomime. Too
much repeated, and too vehement, it fatigues the eyes,
and loses its excellence.
-416 ON THE Airr OF PREACHING.
If any profound sentiment affect you ; if you speak
of any thing, which inspires you with reverence, as God,
his providence, and adorable perfections, gesture is then
altogether unseasonable ; more especially, if you intro-
duce the divinity as speaking unto man, let a perfect
composure have place throughout your whole frame;
as gesture and action could give neither power to your
language, nor dignity to your sentiments.
If you have any principle to establish, any feeling to
describe, call in action to your assistance ; but let it be
grave and chaste, and not intemperate and ludicrous:
The violent motion of the hands is not less offensive,
than the babbling of the tongue ; there is a dignity pe-
culiar to the pulpit, which is violated by unseemly action.
Action should be free and unrestrained. It should
proceed from the shoulders ; that which arises from the
elbow, and, more especially, from the hands, is not suf-
ficiently dignified. When your period is finished, let
your action cease : and do not use a variety of gestures
to express one idea.
The two arms, only, can contribute to action. Be
careful, when you use them together, that their motions
correspond. Their want of concord would be as offen-
sive to the eye, as harshness of sound is grating to the
ear.
In general, when one hand only is used, the right
should be preferred. Not that it is has any advantage
over the left ; but whether it is that a public speaker is
more accustomed to use it, or that ^the eye is more ha-
bituated to the use of it, the action of the left hand sel-
dom appears graceful.
Some writers on oratory have endeavoured to pre-
scribe bounds to the height the action of the hand should
ON THE ART OF PftEAGHlfrCL 417
be carried ; do not, it has been said by some, let it pass
the head ; by others, let your passions direct you ; and
if they impel you to raise your hands above your head,
they will produce no bad effect. It is, then, nature
which dictates it. Nature, alone, should limit you in
your animating exclamations ; and in an ardent invoca-
tion, and in a transport of admiration, nature, alone,
should be your guide.
But let your action be always just ; there are some
men, in whom it is, unfortunately, always false. Hav-
ing neither judgment nor ear, their action is never what
it should be.
Should this, unhappily, be your case, discard action
altogether. It is much better to deprive yourself of its
advantages, were it even unexceptionable, than to make
it either embarrass your periods, or give them a con-,
trary meaning. Just action, and a correct judgment,
usually go together. Nature seldom allows the perfec-
tion of one, with the absence of the other.
The action, which would attempt to express words,
of which a sentence is composed, would evidently fail in
its effect. It would be as offensive as trifling : it is the
general meaning, and predominant idea which should be
conveyed. But how is this to be accomplished? It
cannot be taught. Judgment, taste, and above all, good
models will illustrate it.
To vary the gesture is a talent, and this talent leads
to correctness ; for, if the turn of a discourse varies con-
siderably, the action in order to express it, ought to va-
ry likewise. When a preacher has only one gesture, it
will, necessarily, be incorrect or insignificant ; notwith-
standing which, a dull uniformity of action is the com-
mon defect of preachers. The whole eloquence of the
53
418 ON THE ART OP PREACHING.
* t
person, at least, with many preachers, consists in spread-
ing their hands, for the purpose of uniting them with a
loud noise,* and in continually repeating this periodical
motion. Thus they make the auditor the victim of their
unskilfulness ; they torment his eyes, and wound his
ears, without mercy, by means injudiciously designed to
attach and please them.
The arms and hands are not the only instruments of
action ; the whole person ought to concur in it. The
positions of the body should vary, sometimes by turning
to the right,t and sometimes to the left. I have often
regretted, that our pulpitsj.were not, as in many places
in Italy, formed like a tribune, where the preacher
could move at liberty.
Expressions of countenance, the fire and energy of
the looks, add greatly to the manner of delivery ; the
turn of the eyes is a species of action, which gives life
to eloquence.
These various talents are only means to add effica-
cy to the action of the preacher. To action, all the ob-
servations I have made, exclusively relate. It is the
vehicle of thoughts and feelings, with which a minister
can more sensibly affect his audience. To say, that a
preacher has just and appropriate action, is to say, he
possesses in an eminent degree, all the exterior qualities
* This -censure equally applies to the Methodists, Calvinists, Independ-
ents, &c.
t In small churches no inconvenience may arise from following these direc-
tions; but in a large building, where the pulpit is central, white the person of the
preacher is turned towards one half of the congregation, the other is generally
prevented from hearing.
^ Many of the English pulpits are, it is true, sufficiently awkward ; but such
as M. Reybaz proposes, would only tend to make the speaker theatrical) and
would totally destroy the solemnity of the preaching.
ON THE ART OP PREACHING:
of an orator, in alliance with the liveliness, which gives
to these qualities their power, and determines their ef-
ects.
Demosthenes being asked, in what eloquence con-
sisted, centered the whole in action ; and repeated the
same word three times, as if he had said, it included
every thing, and that eloquence could not exist, inde-
pendent of it. I contrast action with the coolness of
those orators, little deserving of the ' name, with those
ministers of habit, who do not, themselves, feel the
truths of which they are commissioned to make others
sensible ; or, who are absolutely indifferent to the relig-
ion which they preach, and the effect it is intended to
produce.
I do not hesitate to pronounce, however influenced
we may be by custom, that the effect of eloquence is
astonishing. Compose an indifferent discourse, and re-
peat it perfectly, you will satisfy your audience much
more, than with an excellent sermon, delivered with
disgusting monotony, or lifeless utterance.
How many times have we been delighted with the
delivery of a composition, the perusal of which we
could not endure ? And, on the contrary, how often has
a work, which pleased us in the reading appeared oth-
erwise when spoken ? what inference shall we draw
from this ? That elocution is an important art ; and
that a preacher cannot apply himself to it too attentive-
ly : not for the purpose of giving effect to a bad dis-
course, but to exhibit with all its advantages, a sermon,
convincing by its argument, and efficacious by its per-
suasion.
You will find, in the history of eloquence, that the
orator owes his success, principally, to declamation.
The harangues of Pericles, produced, in his month, the
420 ON THE ART OF PREACHING.
highest effect. He published them ; but Quintilian es-
teemed them unworthy of the reputation they had ac-
quired. The minister Du Bosc was deputed by the
Protestant clergy to address to Louis XIV. their remon-
strances. I have just heard, said that prince, the finest
preacher in my kingdom. The extreme feebleness of
the sermons published by Du Bosc, strongly prepossess
us in favour of his exterior eloquence.
There are three* sorts of declamation ; that of the
pulpit, of the theatre, and of the bar. But as each has
a species of eloquence peculiar to itself, so it hath of de-
clamation likewise. Whatever it is that a person re-
peats, he should always consider who it is that speaks ;
who are the people addressed ; what ought to be the
subject matter of the discourse ; and under what cir-
cumstances the auditory is convened. These considera-
tions regulate the art of speaking.
The preacher commonly speaks to instruct the as-
sembly ; he js transported with the emotions he endeav-
ours to excite. If he feel sensibly, if he be sometimes
moved to tears, he has always in view the welfare of
his audience ; the declamation of the preacher will be
influenced by that single motive ; the whole tenor of his
action will be to persuade the affections, and to impress
the heart.
One successful method of an orator's conciliating the
esteem of his audience is, by the observance of oratori-
cal decorum. It is not becoming in a young preacher to'
censure old age with severity ; it is not becoming in
him to be austere in his system of morality, to declaim
against permitted pleasures, and not to allow any thing
* M. Reybaz knew nothing of the eloquence of the British parliament, which
surpasses often the eloquence of the pulpit, even in France*
ON THE ART OP PREACHING. 421
I
to human weakness. It is not becoming in him whose
situation in life is obscure, to inveigh loudly against rich-
es ; not to censure, indiscriminately, the application of
them, as he will only subject himself to the suspicion of
envy. He must take care, at the Festivals of the
church, and on days set apart, by authority, for solemn
worship, not to preach on moral subjects, which have
been often discussed, since they will not be esteemed ju-
dicious and appropriate.
Be attentive to what your age, your rank in the
church, your condition in society, the times, places and
persons prescribe to you to say, and you- will preserve
decorum. Religion does not discard, but enjoins it ; re-
ligion recommends prudence, which suggests the great-
est caution in not wounding, unnecessarily, the feelings
of others. The Essay of the Abbe Mallet, on oratori-
cal decorum, is worthy of your serious perusal.
There are many works on preaching ; the asra of
Louis XIV. produced many, and the seventeenth century
has produced more. Much as may, confessedly, be
gained by the study of Treatises on Oratory, if your ob-
ject be to arrive at celebrity, as a preacher, still, a great
genius is far superior to their instructions. They will
teach you to shun the defects of the art ; but will they
inspire you with its beauties ? There exists a natural
relation between the mode of speaking, and of what we
speak. I have never heard an eloquent composition de-
livered, by the Author, in an ungraceful and uninterest-
ing manner.
The substance of all the rules I have laid down is
this, that a preacher ought not merely to seem, but ac-
tually TO BE impressed with the truths he delivers.
Let a truly religious disposition prevail throughout your
422 ON THE ART OP PEACHING.
discourse. Let not your preaching be such as will be
flattering to yourself, but adapted to the improvement
and edification of your audience. The perfection of el-
oquence, in a Christian orator, consists in forgetting him-
self; the importance of what he is delivering, and the
effect it ought to produce, should suppress all conscious-
ness of his own talents.
Above all, let your morals be correspondent to your
doctrine. Let your appearance excite the ideas of wis-
dom, integrity and piety. By your virtues, attract the
respect and confidence of mankind, that every heart
may be disposed to profit by your instructions. Justify,
by your example, the definition, which Quintilian gave of
an orator, when he said, the upright is the eloquent
man.
You asked me for instruction in the art of preaching,
persuaded they would be useful to you. If I have been
fortunate enough to answer your expectations, answer
mine in return. May you make an happy application of
the principles I have laid down. May your ministry flour-
ish, and be productive of the most blessed effects ! May
you, by the successful cultivation of the Lord's vineyard,
receive as the reward of your labours, not the admira-
tion and the praises, but the blessings, of those you have
instructed, consoled, and nourished, with the words of
life !
A LIST OF BOOKS
TO AID
YOUNG PREACHERS IN THE SELECTION OF A LIBRARY.
I O any one, who is acquainted with books, it will be evi-
dent that the following list is not designed to be taken as a guide,
in the selection of an extensive library. It would require a vol-
ume to mention even the titles of those books, which might be
recommended as desirable for a preacher to possess. All that
is intended here, is to enumerate so many of the most valuable
works as to assist theological students, of limited means, in their
early selections. They whose resources will admit of expensive
purchases, will of course resort to such catalogues and biblioth-
ecas, as contain ample information to direct their choice.
The price of books depends so much on the quality of the
edition, and the circumstances of the purchase, that it is omitted
in the following list.
Biblia Heb. MICHAELIS, vel SIMONIS, vel VANDER HOOGHT.
Lexicon Heb. SIMONIS edit, ab EICHHORNIO, vel GESENII, edit.
secund.
SCHLEUSNERI Lexicon Nov. Test. 2 vols. 8vo.
POLI Synopsis Criticorum, 5 vols. folio.
CAMPBELL on the Gospels, 4 vols. 8vo.
LOWTH'S Lectures on Heb. Poetryj 8vo.
Translation of Isaiah, 8vo.
CRUDEN'S Concordance 4to.
Concordantice Grseca, SCHMIDII, folio.
SCOTT'S Commentary, 5 vols. 4to. or 6 vols. 8vo.
DODDRIDGE'S Expositor, 6 vols. 8vo.
GUYSE'S Paraphrase, 3 vols. 4to. or 6 vols. 8vo,
MACKNIGHT on the Epistles, 6 vols. 8vo.
424 LIST OP BdOKS<
OWEN on the Hebrews, 4 vols. 8vo.
TJTMANNUS in Evang. Johann. 8vo.
PATRICK, LOWTH, and WHITBY united, on the Old and New
Testaments, 6 vols. folio.
ROSENMULLER in Nov. Test. 5 vols. 8vo. recommended so far
as philology is concerned.
ROSENMULLER in Vet. Test. 18 vols. 8vo. recommended only so
far as philology is concerned.
WOLFII Curaa Criticae in Nov. Test. 5 vols. 4to.
MORI Hermeneutica Nov. Test. 2 vols. 8vo.
MARSH'S Michaelis Introd. to New Testament, 8vo.
ERNESTI Institutio Interpretis, 12mo.
NEWCOME'S Greek Harmony of the Evangelists, 8vo.
KUINOEL Com. in Evangel. 3 vols. 8vo.
PALEY'S Evidences of Christianity, 12mo.
Horae Paulina?, 8vo.
CAMPBELL on Miracles, 12mo.
STILLINGFLEET'S Origines Sacra*, folio.
LELAND'S Advantage and Necessity of revelation, 2 vols. 8vo.
View of Deistical writers 2 vols. 8vo.
LESLIE' Short Method, 8vo.
CHALMER'S Evidences, 8vo.
BERKELEY'S Minute Philosopher, 8vo.
BUTLER'S Analogy, 8vo.
DOUGLAS'S Criterion, 8vo.
GISBORNE'S Testimony of Nat. Theol. to Christianity, 12mo.
PALEY'S Nat. Theology, 12mo.
TURRETTINI Institutio Theologiae Elenchticse, 3 vols. 4to.
VAN MASTRICHT'S Theology
CALVIN'S Institutes, translated by Allen, 3 vols. 8vo.
EDWARDS'S Works, 8 vols. 8vo.
EDWARDS Jun. on Liberty and Necessity, 8vo
Against Chauncey, 8vo.
HOPKINS' System, 2 vols. 8vo.
D WIGHT'S Theology, 5 vols. 8vo.
RIDGLEY'S Body of Divinity, with notes by Wilson, 4 vols. 8vo.
MAGEE on Atonement, 8vo.
LIST OP BOOKS.
425
BELLAMY'S Works, 3 vols, 8vo.
FULLER'S Works.
WITSIUS on the Covenants, 3 vols. 8vo.
WARDLAW on the Socinian Controversy.
WATTS' Works, 7 vols. 8vo.
WITHERSPOON'S Works, 4 vols. 8vo.
JOHNSON'S Dictionary, 4 vols. 8vo. or with corrections and large
additions by Todd, 5 vols. 4to.
WALKER'S Pronouncing Dictionary, 8vo.
Elements of Elocution, 8vo.
Key to Proper Names, 8vo.
CRABB'S English Synonymes, 8vo.
CAMPBELL'S Philos. of Rhetoric, 2 vols. 8vo. or Amer. edit. 8vo.
PICKERING'S Vocabulary of Americanisms, 8vo
FOSTER'S Essays, 12mo.
WESTMINSTER Con. of Faith.
CAMPBELL'S Lectures on Syst. Theol. and Pulpit Eloquence, 8vo.
YOUNG Minister's Companion, 8vo.
YOUNG Preacher's Manual, 8vo.
EMMONS' Sermons, 3 vols. 8vo.
SMALLEY'S Sermons, 2 vols. 8vo.
GRIFFIN'S Park Street Lectures, 8vo
BATES' Works, 2 vols. fol.
GISBORNE'S Sermons, 3 vols. 8vo.
COOPER'S Sermons, 2 vols. 8vo.
DAVIES' Sermons, 5 vols. 8vo.
WALKER'S (Robert) Sermons, 4 vols, 8vc%
JAY'S first vol.
EVANS' Sermons on Christian temper.
OWEN on 139th Psalm, on Indwelling Sin, and on Spiritual
mindedness.
FLAVEL'S Works, 2 vols. fol.
JOHN Newton's Works, 6 vols. 8vo-
BAXTER'S Practical Works.
LAW'S Serious Call } 12mo.
WILBERFORCE'S Practical View, 12mo-
THOMAS a Kempis, 8vo.
54
426 LIST OF BOOKS.
PIKE'S Cases of Conscience, 12mo.
BOSTON'S Fourfold State, 12mo.
DODDRIDGE'S Rise and Progress, 12mo.
LEIGHTON on 1 Peter, 2 vols. 8vo. All his works are good.
CAMPBELL'S Lectures on the Pastoral Office, 8vo.
MASSILLON'S Charges, 8vo.
MOSHEIM'S Eccles. Hist. 6 vols. 8vo.
MILNER'S Hist, of the Church, 5 vols. 8vo.
PRIDEAUX' Connexion, 4 vols. 8vo.
LOWMAN'S Heb. Ritual, 8vo.
Among the standard English works that might be useful to
the young preacher in forming his style, may be reckoned,
ALISON on Taste, 8vo.
SPECTATOR, with preface, historical and biographical, by Chal-
mers, 10 vols. 12mo.
JOHNSON'S Rambler, 3 vols. 12mo.
BEATTIE'S Works, 10 vols. 12mo.
MILTON'S Paradise Lost, &c. 2 vols. 12mo.
YOUNG'S Night Thoughts, 12mo.
COWPER'S Task, 12mo.
POPE'S Poetical Works, 4 vols. 12mo.
A few general books of reference, are almost indispensable
in the library of a preacher, as they often furnish him with im-
portant information when he most needs it, and with a small ex-
pense of time. Among these may be mentioned,
LEMPRIERE'S Biographical Dictionary, 2 vols. 8vo.
Classical Dictionary, 8vo.
CALMET'S Dictionary of the Holy Bible, 4 vols. 4lo
HARMER'S Observations, 4 vols. 8vo.
WELLS' Geography, 2 vols. Svo.
BURDER'S Oriental Customs, 2 vols. 8vo,
H. ADAMS'S View of Religions, 8vo
GASTON'S Collections, Svo,
INDEX.
Page
Action, Us design 93, 396
, its importance 415
, rules for .415
, should not be too uniform... 95,
97, 414
i not represent words, but
thoughts 397
, among the ancients 92, 96
, of English preachers in the
time of Addison 93
Affectation, of peculiarity 128
. , its effect upon style 130
Antithesis, artificial, should be a-
voided 126
Ambrose, St 173
Aristotle, character of his Rhetoric.. 43
Articulation, distinct, its impor-
tance 408
Austin, St 170
, his rules of effectual elo-
quence 184
, his opinion of the design of
Christian oratory 378
, success of his preaching.... 185
Chrysostom, St 174, 179, 360
Cicero, compared with Demosthenes 196
- , his opinion of the knowledge
necessary to an orator.7l 74
Classics, ancient, their importance
to a preacher 158
Criticisms, learned, improper for
sermons, note 163
Cyprian, St 169
Demosthenes, an example of simple
eloquence 187
.. , compared with tsocrates..41
', compared with Cicero... 196
Divine A ssislance, peculiarly neces-
sary to the preacher 145
, encouragement of the
preacher to seek and ex-
pect it 26
: , does not supersede the
necessity of eloquence 144,146
Divisions in sermons 116121,367,412
Page
Divisions, rules respecting. .39,228-241
Eloquence, what 81,84, 140, 191
, ends of. 39,45
, rules of. 184
' T examples of simple 185 190
, of the Scriptures.. .147 151
, of Paul 141
, Socrates and Plato's opin-
ion of. 6469
Emphasis A394
Eyes, their influence in expressing
emotion..... 103
, their motions, how to be reg-
ulated in the pulpit 411
Fathers, knowledge of desirable to
the preacher 159, 160
, their allegorical interpreta-
tion of Scripture 177
Greeks and Romans, progress of ef-
feminacy among 50
-, their application of music
and poetry 49
Homer, design of bis Iliad 57
< , inferior in sublimity to the
Scriptures 147
Isocrates, perverted eloquence.. 42, 123,
126
-,compared with Demosthenes 41
Jerom, St 173
Knowledge, importance of, to a
preacher 74
, of men 70,404
Longinus, his treatise on the sublime 43
, his description of Isocra-
tes 197
Men, knowledge of. 70, 404
Modulation 393
Music, use made of by the ancients... 49
Orator, true described 77, 194
, importance of virtue to 59
, how qualified 192
Origen, the father of pulpit oratory.360
, his allegorical interpretation .
of Scripture 178
Panegyrics, legitimate design of 56 58
426 LIST OF BOOKS.
PIKE'S Cases of Conscience, 12mo.
BOSTON'S Fourfold State, 12mo.
DODDRIDGE'S Rise and Progress, 12mo.
LEIGHTON on 1 Peter, 2 vols. 8vo. All his works are good.
CAMPBELL'S Lectures on the Pastoral Office, 8vo.
MASSILLON'S Charges, 8vo.
MOSHEIM'S Eccles. Hist. 6 vols. 8vo.
MILKER'S Hist, of the Church, 5 vols. 8vo.
PRIDEAUX' Connexion, 4 vols. 8vo.
LOWMAN'S Heb. Ritual, 8vo.
Among the standard English works that might be useful to
the young preacher in forming his style, may be reckoned,
ALISON on Taste, 8vo.
SPECTATOR, with preface, historical and biographical, by Chal-
mers, 10 vols. 12mo.
JOHNSON'S Rambler, 3 vols. 12mo.
BEATTIE'S Works, 10 vols. 12mo.
MILTON'S Paradise Lost, &c. 2 vols. 12mo.
YOUNG'S Night Thoughts, 12mo.
COWPER'S Task. 12mo.
POPE'S Poetical Works, 4 vols. 12mo.
A few general books of reference, are almost indispensable
in the library of a preacher, as they often furnish him with im-
portant information when he most needs it, and with a small ex-
pense of time. Among these may be mentioned,
LEMPRIERE'S Biographical Dictionary, 2 vols, 8vo.
Classical Dictionary, 8vo.
CALMET'S Dictionary of the Hoiy Bible, 4 vols. 4to,
HARMER'S Observations. 4 vols. 8vo.
WELLS' Geography, 2 vols. 8vo.
BURDER'S Oriental Customs, 2 vols. Svo*
H. ADAMS'S View of Religions, 8vo.
GASTON'S Collections, 8vo,
INDEX.
Page
its design ..93, 396 j
, its importance 415
rules for 415
should not be too uniform. ..95,
97, 414
, not represent words, but
thoughts 397
, among the ancients 92, 96
, of English preachers in the
time of Addison.. 93
Affectation, of peculiarity 128
, its effect upon style..... 130
Antithesis, artificial, should be a-
voided 126
Ambrose, St 173
Aristotle, character of his Rhetoric.. 43
Articulation, distinct, its impor-
tance 408
Austin, St 170
, his rules of effectual elo-
quence 184
, his opinion of the design of
Christian oratory 378
, success of his preaching.... 185
Chrysostom, St 174, 179, 360
Cicero, compared with Demosthenes 196
-, , his opinion of the knowledge
necessary to an orator.7l 74
Classics, ancient, their importance
to a preacher 158
Criticisms, learned, improper for
sermons, note 163
Cyprian, St 169
Demosthenes, an example of simple
eloquence 187
, compared with Isocrates..41
', compared with Cicero... 196
Divine Assistance, peculiarly neces-
sary to the preacher 145
, encouragement of the
preacher to seek and ex-
pect it 26
, does not supersede the
necessity of eloquence 144,146
Division? in sermons 1 16 121.367,4,1?
Page
Divisions, rules respecting..39,228-241
Eloquence, what 81,84, 140, 191
, ends of. 39,45
, rules of. ..............184
, examples of simplelSS 190
, of the Scriptures.. .147 151
, of Paul 141
, Socrates and Plato's opin-
ion of. 64 69
Emphasis ^394
Eyes, their influence in expressing
emotion 103
, their motions, how to be reg-
ulated in the pulpit 411
Fathers, knowledge of desirable to
the preacher 159, 160
, their allegorical interpreta-
tion of Scripture 177
Greeks and Romans, progress of ef-
feminacy among 50
, their application of music
and poetry 49
Homer, design of his Iliad 57
- , inferior iu sublimity to the
Scriptures 147
[socrates, perverted eloquence.. 42, 123,
126
,compared with Demosthenes 41
Jerom, St 173
Knowledge, importance of, to a
preacher 74
, of men 70,404
Longinus, his treatise on the sublime 43!
, his description of Isocra-
tes 197
Men, knowledge of. 70, 404
Modulation 393
Music, use made of by the ancients... 49
Oralar, true described 77, 194
, importance of virtue to, 59
, how qualified 192
Origen, the father of pulpit oratory.360
, his allegorical interpretation .
of Scripture 178
Fantgiirics, legitimate design of 56 58
428
INDEX.
Page
Panegyric, rules respecting 180
Paul, resemblance of his eloquence
to Demosthenes.- 141
Piety in a preacher 9-12, 198
Plato, his opinion of the Rhetori-
cians 64
, his manner of forming an orator 70
Poetry, use made of, by the ancients 49
Preacher, importance of example
in 62,63
, effect of superficial knowl-
edge on a 76
, necessity of talents and
learning in a 133,404
.- , importance of sensibility
in a 405
Preaching, origin and progress of.. .359
362
, end of. 14
. , importance of. 15,20
, should be suited to the
capacities and wants of the
hearers 23
, pernicious effects of in-
discriminate, note.. ..125, 153
, affectionate manner of... 165
, angry and scolding, note.155
, importance of systematic 165
, extempore and memoriter
compared .112116,396,407
Reading, the art of, its importance
and bow attained 409
Scripture, importance of a compre-
hensive and familiar ac-
quaintance with, to the
preacher 152 '158
... , on the allegorical inter-
pretation of. 177
, quaint and whimsical in-
terpretation of. 199212
.- , fantastical application of 364
Page
Scripture, eloquence of... ...... 147 151
Sermons, choice of subjects for 362
, general rules of.. ...219 227
, topics of invention for.. ..278
321, 371
, unity and simplicity of... 364
, of the exordium 328-343,368
, of the proposition 370
, of the conclusion.. .345 349
373
: , French, Gregory's opin-
ion of. 364
Socrates, his opinion of ancient ora-
tory 67
Style, perspicuity of. 375
, purity of. 381
, ornament of. 387
, simplicity of. 139, 184191
, of the Scriptures...l36, 147151
, frigid and boyish, note ..74
, bombastic 391
, feeble.. 391
, its effect upon modulation 99
Texts, choice of 37, 176, 215, 365
, connexion ..227
, manner of treating, to be dis-
cussed by way of explica-
tion 242268
, " " of obser-
vation 273277
r, " " of application.. 323
, " " in propositions. .324
, long and short 365
Tertullian 167
Virgil, character of his JEneid 58
Voice, how strengthened 408
, pitch of the, at the commence-
ment of a discourse 412
, monotony, how produced 408
, inflections of. 100, 393
Wit, not suited to the pulpit... 84
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